UC-NRLF 


B    3    ISM    1M3 


OKS,  PRINTS  AND  OIL 

PAINTINGS, 
NASSAU  STREET,  N.Y. 

T.  WATTS,  Librarian. 
rch,  1847. 
oks  and  Curiosities  Bought. 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 
MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


LIBRARY  OF 

ENTERTAINING  KNOWLEDGE, 

NOW    PUBLISHING 

BY  LILLY  &  WAIT,  (late  WELLS  &  LILLY,)  AND 
CARTER,  HENDEE  &  BABCOCK,  BOSTON, 

G.  &  C.  &  H.  Carvill,  and  E.  Bliss,  N.  York;  Carey  &  Hart, 
Philadelphia  ;  E.  J.  Coale,  Baltimore  ;  Thompson  &  Ho- 
rnans,  Washington;  W  M.  Morrison,  Alexandria;  R.  D. 
Sanxay,  Richmond;  W.  H.  Berrett,  Charleston,  S.  C.;  Mary 
CarrolL  N.  Orleans;  Odiorne  &  Smith,  Mobile;  C.  D.  Brad- 
ford &  Co.  Cincinnati;  Little  &  Curnmings,  Albany;  H. 
Ho  we,  New-Haven;  S.  Butler  &  Son,  Northampton;  Whip- 
pie  &  Lawrence,  Salem;  Eli  French,  Dover;  Geo.  Tilden, 
Keene;  and  S.  Colman,  Portland. 

iCJ^The  publishers  are  happy  in  stating,  that  this  beautiful 
work,  which  proves  to  be  not  only  the  most  entertaining, 'but 
one  of  the  most  useful  mediums  of  conveying  knowledge,  con- 
tinues to  receive  as  well  as  to  deserve,  an  extended  and  daily 
increasing  encouragement. 

The  LIBRARY  OF  ENTERTAINING  KivowLEDGEis  pub- 
lished under  the  superintendence  of  the  British  Society  for  th« 
A 


diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge,  (Mr  Brougham,  now  Lord 
Chancellor,  is  chairman«of  the  publishing  committee, ),  and  re- 
printed page  for  page  with  the  London  edition. 

Each  part  contains  more  than  200  pages,  and  numerous  en- 
gravings on  wood,  beautifully  executed*.  —  Price  forttf  cents  a 
part,  and  continued  on  the  same  terms.  \ 

Among  the  subjects  first  treated  of  in  the  Library  f>f  Enter- 
taining Knowledge,  are  the  following:  — 

The  Menageries ;  Quadrupeds  described  and  drawn  from 
living  subjects. 

Vegetable  Substances;  Timber  Trees  and  Fruits. 

Anecdotes  of  Individuals  remarkable  for  the  pursuit  of 
Knowledge,  Franklin,  Newton,  Hunter,  &c. 

The  INew  Zealanders,  with  beautiful  Illustrations. 

Insect  Architecture  and  Insect  Transformations,  £.c,  &c. 

To  be  followed  by  other  subjects  of  great  interest:  among 
which  will  be  the  MECHANICS  OF  BIRDS. 

'  The  volumes  upon  Insect  Architecture  and  Transformations 
will  prove  unusually  interesting.  To  the  Farmer,  as  well  as  to 
the  Naturalist,  and  all  who  love  to  search  into  the  mysterious 
operations  of  nature.  Interesting  to  all;  but  to  the  Agricul- 
turalist particularly  useful,  in  enabling  him  to  understand  the 
origin  and  the  character  of  numerous  insects  that  blight  the 
expected  harvest,  and  nip  his  promised  fruits  in  the  green  tree 
and  in  the  bud.  Teaching  him  where  such  ravages  may  be 
provided  against,  and  where  they  must  be  submitted  to  as  the 
unavoidable  dispensations  of  Providence.' 

The  Edinburgh  Review  says,  —  'The  Library  of  Enter- 
taining Knowledge  has  been  instituted,  for  the  purpose  of 
turning  to  some  account  the  reading  of  that  large  class,  in  every 
community,  who  are  not  averse  to  all  reading,  but  will  consent 
only  to  read  what  is  amusing.  So  large  a  portion  of  important, 
information  may  be  conveyed  in  this  shape,  that  the  greatest 
benefit  is  to  be  expected  from  this  Library.  It  is  full  of 
science,  and  yet  as  amusing  as  a  novel.  These  works  are  il- 
lustrated with  a  profusion  of  the  most  beautiful  cuts.  It  is  not 
wonderful  that  the  circulation  should  be  extensive;  it  is  said  to 
be  twenty  thousand  monthly.' 

Societies  for  the  diffusion  of  useful  knowledge,  schools  and 
seminaries,  supplied  on  the  most  favourable  terms. 

IdPTwelve  numbers  of  the  American  edition  are  now  pub- 
lished, and  several  others  which  are  equally  beautiful  and  in- 
teresting, now  in  press,  and  will  appear  in  speedy  succession. 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST 


"•""1  onSnn,   t,,A(FTiB> 


"As  ;in   <  >b.-;<M  ver  of  Nature. 'ivt-ry  in/iu  lias  i(  in    h 
power  to  become  a   N^Turalist." 


LILLY  &  WAIT  A- 
CAH'I  KK.HENi>KK   &  M 


MANUAL 


OF       THE 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST; 


DIRECTIONS 

FOR  COLLECTING,  PREPARING,  AND  PRESERVING 
SUBJECTS  OF 

NATURAL    HISTORY. 


Containing   instructions   and  recipes  according  to  the  most  approved 

methods  for  taking  and  stuffing  Quadrupeds,  Birds,  Fishes, 

Reptiles.    Selecting,  preserving,  and  arranging 

Ins  ects,  Minerals,  Plants,  Shells,  4  c,  <^c. 


BOSTON  — LILLY     AND     WAIT,     AND 

CARTER,    HENDEE     &    BABCOCK. 

1831. 


DISTRICT  OF  MASSACHUSETTS,  TO  WIT: 

District  Clerk^s  Office- 

HE  IT  REMEMBERED,  that  on  the  fourteenth  day  of  May,  A.  D.  1831, 
Lilly  &  Wait,  of  the  said  District,  have  deposited  in  this  Office  the  Title 
of  a  Book,  the  title  of  which  is  in  the  words  following,  to  wit : 

*  Manual  of  the  Practical  Naturalist;  or  directions  for  collecting,  preparing, 
and  preserving  subjects  of  Natural  History.  Containing  instructions  aiid  re- 
cipes according  to  the  most  approved  methods  for  taking  and  stuffing  Quadru- 
peds, Birds,  Fishes.  Reptiles.  Selecting,  preserving,  and  arranging  Insects, 
Minerals,  Plants,  Shells,  &e. 

The  Right  whereof  they  claim  as  Proprietors,  in  conformity  with  an  Act  of 
Congress,  entitled  '  An  Act  to  amend  the  several  acts  respecting  Copyrights.' 

JNO.  W.  DAVIS, 

Clerk  of  the  District. 


INTRODUCTION. 


THE  object  of  the  present  work  is  to  afford  the 
necessary  instruction  for  preserving  the  various 
productions  of  nature,  and  to  present  a  general 
idea  of  the  arrangements  with  respect  to  family 
and  species,  upon  which  naturalists  have  esta- 
blished their  methods  of  classification. 

It  is  evident,  that  without  any  efficient  means 
for  the  preservation  of  the  various  subjects  which 
compose  the  three  great  departments  of  nature, 
natural  science,  so  far  from  having  made,  that  im- 
mense progress  which  at  the  present  day  is  the 
object  of  so  much  admiration,  would  be  still 
shrouded  in  the  deepest  ignorance.  The  ante- 
lopes, the  dolphins,  the  apes,  and  the  phocae  of 
the  animal  creation,  would  maintain  the  charac- 

M351776 


Vlll  INTRODUCTION. 

ter  imposed  upon  them  by  the  uninstructed  cre- 
dulity of  former  ages,  and  figure  to  our  imagina- 
tions as  unicorns,  tritons,  fawns,  satyrs  and  sirens. 
But  the  torch  of  science  has  enlightened  a  great 
portion  of  the  globe ;  sober  truth  has  exploded 
the  extravagances  of  fiction,  and  a  philosophical 
criticism  occupies  the  place  of  wonder  and  cre- 
dulity. 

We  owe  this  advantage  to  the  study  of  Natu- 
ral History;  —  a  study  which  has  been  promoted 
chiefly  by  those  admirable  collections  of  materi- 
als for  this  department  of  knowledge  in  Europe ; 
collections  which  have  excited  the  admiration  of 
every  individual,  and  continue  to  hold  out  a  fur- 
ther incitement  to  researches  destined  to  tear 
aside  the  veil  from  what  is  still  a  mystery  to  our 
eyes. 

The   different  branches  of  human  knowledge 
advance  by  means  of  the  reciprocal  aid  which 
they  lend  each  other.     No  art  but  has  afforded 
some  discovery   useful  to  the  rest,   and    which* 
they  have  applied  to  extend   their  own  limits. 


INTRODUCTION.  IX 

In  our  own  infant  country,  and  with  that  predo- 
minant bias  toward  the  practical  and  useful, which 
is  the  characteristic  of  the  present  day,  the  sci 
ence  of  Natural  History  is  not  without  high  claims 
to  our  notice. 

Europe  possesses  museums  of  Natural  History, 
the  loss  of  which  would  throw  back  the  science 
for  a  century.  Ought  not  the  citizen  of  this 
thriving  republic  to  feel  a  wish  to  rival  the  old 
continent  in  these  precious  collections  ?  It  would 
be  needless  to  expatiate  upon  the  richness  of  the 
materials  which  our  own  land  offers. 

Although  the  knowledge  which  is  imparted  in 
these  pages  may  not  appear  to  enter  immediately 
into  the  great  interests  of  mankind,  yet  it  is  not 
the  less  worthy  of  occupying  the  attention  of  the 
friend  of  science.  The  enthusiastic  admirer  of 
nature  will  not  fail  to  appreciate  it.  By  means 
of  this  knowledge  we  are  enabled  to  preserve 
animals  for  years  after  their  death,  in  all  those 
brilliant  colours  and  graceful  attitudes  which  con  • 


X  INTRODUCTION. 

stitute  their  principal  charm  when  living.  By 
this  help  the  studious  naturalist  may  have  under 
his  own  view  the  representatives  of  the  various 
tribes  which  people  the  whole  animal  kingdom. 
Within  the  walls  of  his  own  cabinet  he  may  com- 
pare together  the  tiger  of  India  and  the  panther 
of  America, — the  enormous  serpent  who  strives 
with  the  lion  of  the  African  deserts,  and  the  tor- 
pid reptile  that  sluggishly  '  drags  its  slow  length 
along '  in  the  bogs  of  Northern  Europe.  In  the 
confines  of  his  own  study  he  will  be  able  to  cor- 
rect the  errors  of  the  traveller  who  is  seduced  by 
the  love  of  the  marvellous;  and  treading  in  the 
steps  of  Buffon  and  Cuvier,  will  acquire  greater 
treasures  of  knowledge  in  his  closet,  than  thou- 
sands who  traverse  the  world  for  study. 

The  works  upon  Natural  History  which  our 
country  has  produced,  are  of  high  value  to  the 
science.  The  splendid  volumes  of  Wilson  and 
Bonaparte  upon  Ornithology,  and  of  several  other 
writers  in  different  branches,  are  known  with  high 
reputation  beyond  the  limits  of  our  own^country. 
A  systematic  collection  of  the  various  tribes  of 


INTRODUCTION.  XI 

animals  indigenous  to  our  continent,  ought  to 
occupy  our  first  attention  in  the  endeavour  to 
promote  this  science.  The  recent  formation  in 
this  city  of  a  society  of  Natural  History,  leads 
us  to  hope  that  an  undertaking  of  so  much  inter- 
est and  usefulness  to  the  study  will  soon  receive 
the  countenance  and  aid  of  the  Boston  public. 
Whoever  has  witnessed  the  admirable  collection 
of  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  at  Paris,  must 
be  sensible  what  accredit  would  be  reflected  upon 
the  citizens  of  that  portion  of  our  country  which 
could  pride  itself  upon  the  possession  of  a  simi- 
lar treasury  of  scientific  riches. 

As  an  aid  and  exhortation  in  behalf  ^of  so  de- 
sirable an  object,  the  following  manual  has  been 
prepared.  To  make  it  the  more  acceptable  to 
the  general  reader,  care  has  been  taken  to  avoid 
or  explain  all  the  less  common  scientific  terms. 

The  art  of  preparing  animals  with  a  view  to 
their  preservation  is  very  ancient.  The  oldest 
civilized  nation  upon  the  globe  possessed  it  in  a 
high  degree  of  perfection  —  a  higher  than  even 


Xll  INTRODUCTION. 

that  of  the  present  day.  The  Egyptian  mum- 
mies of  human  subjects,  birds,  cats,  &c,  of  several 
thousand  years'  antiquity,  have  come  down  to  us 
in  perfect  preservation.  The  Egyptian  art,  how- 
ever, has  been  lost. 

The  modern  art  of  preservation  can  date  back 
but  little  more  than  half  a  century.  Some  Eng- 
lish, French,  and  Swedish  naturalists  published 
treatises  on  the  subject  about  the  years  1750  and 
1760.  Those  which  attracted  the  most  notice 
were  the  productions  of  Dr  John  Coakley  Lett- 
som  and  the  celebrated  Reaumur.  The  latter 
formed  a  very  beautiful  cabinet  of  natural  history 
in  his  own  house,  which  after  his  death  became 
the  basis 'of  the  collection  of  birds  in  the  Museum 
at  Paris.  Experience,  however,  proved  that  the 
means  he  proposed  were  insufficient  for  preserva- 
tion. Reaumur  received  birds  from  all  parts  of 
the  world,  in  spirit  of  wine,  according  to  the  in- 
structions he  had  given,  and  contented  himself 
with  taking  them  from  this  liquor  and  arranging 
them  in  his  cabinet  with  wires.  The  larger  ani- 
mals were  padded  with  straw. 


INTRODUCTION.  Xlll 

Some  persons  in  France,  struck  with  the  ap- 
pearance of  these  animals,  attempted  to  skin 
some  native  birds,  and  to  mount  them  for  the 
cabinet.  They  succeeded  but  indifferently  ;  the 
body  was  too  forward,  and  the  thighs  projected 
out  behind.  It  may  be  well  to  observe  that  this 
fault  always  happens  with  those  who  mount  a 
bird  for  the  first  time,  even  when  they  have  re- 
ceived proper  instructions. 

To  these  succeeded  the  German,  Schoeffer. 
This  naturalist,  after  skinning  them  contented 
himself  by  cutting  the  birds  longitudinally  in 
two,  and  filling  one  half  with  plaster ;  then  fixing 
the  skin  at  the  back  of  a  box  of  a  depth  propor- 
tionate to  the  size  of  the  bird,  he  stuck  in  an  eye, 
and  replaced  or  represented  the  beak  and  claws 
by  painting  ;  he  then  carefully  fixed  a  glass  on 
this  frame,  to  protect  the  object  from  insects. 
This  method  is  still  followed  in  Germany,  but 
much  improved, 

A  work  appeared  at  Lyons  in  1758,  entitled 
'  Instructions  on  the  manner  of  Collecting  and 


XIV  INTRODUCTION. 

Preparing  the  different  Curiosities  of  Natural 
History.'  M.  Turgot,  the  author,  was  the  first 
who  announced  some  useful  principles  for  the 
art.  This  work  likewise  contained  a  memoir  of 
M.  Duhamel,  entitled  f  Instructions  for  the  trans- 
portation by  sea  of  Living  Plants,  Seeds,  &£C.' 
The  work  is  altogether  an  interesting  one. 

In  1786,  the  Abbu  Manesse  published  a  trea- 
tise on  the  i  Manner  of  Stuffing  and  Preserving 
Animals  and  Skins.'  He  presented  his  work  to 
the  Academy,  who  made  a  very  favourable  re- 
port of  it.  This  book  contained  some  very  use- 
ful advice,  but  the  instructions  it  gave  for  mount- 
ing and  preserving  birds  do  not  appear  altogether 
admissible.  The  author  excludes  the  use  of  poi- 
sons, and  in  this  we  recognise  the  principles  of 

humanity  which  have  always  characterized  him. 
/• 

The  Abbe  Manesse  has  rendered  great  service 
to  science  by  his  excellent  observations  on  the 
manners  of  animals.  He  neglected  no  informa- 
tion which  might  be  procured  either  by  corre- 


INTRODUCTION.  XV 

spondence  or  his  own  labours.  At  the  age  of 
forty-five  he  climbed  the  highest  trees  with  the 
assistance  of  two  hooks  fitted  to  a  pair  of  boots, 
and  a  girth  which  encircled  his  body  and  the 
tree  at  the  same  time. 

M.  Mauduyt  has  given  a  memoir  on  the  man- 
ner of  preparing  birds  for  collections  in  the  fifth 
livraison  of  the  Encyclopedic  Methodique,  His- 
toire  Naturelle  des  Oiseaux.  He  does  not,  how- 
ever, point  out  any  effectual  means  of  preserva- 
tion. His  recommendation  of  sulphureous  fumi- 
gations for  killing  insects,  is  liable  to  strong  objec- 
tions from  the  injury  to  which  the  skins  them- 
selves are  exposed. 

The  English  work  of  Dr  Lettsom  contains  some 
judicious  directions,  and  is  valuable  as  far  as  it 
goes,  but  is  much  too  concise  for  a  safe  guide. 
There  had  been  previously  written,  although  not 
published,  a  treatise  upor;  the  same  subject  by 
John  Reinhold  Forster,  the  traveller  ;  of  this 
work  Dr  Lettsom  made  considerable  use  in  the 


XVI  INTRODUCTION. 

compilation  of  his  own.  The  writings  of  Davis 
and  Kuckahn,in  the  Philosophical  Transactions, 
were  also  turned  by  him  to  the  same  account. 
Lettsom's  '  Naturalist's  and  Traveller's  Compa- 
nion/ with  all  its  deficiencies,  may  still  be  con- 
sulted with  advantage. 

Besides  these,  many  small  treatises  were  given 
to  the  world  in  various  scientific  journals  ^and 
other  shapes,  among  which  number  may  be  men- 
tioned one  by  Linne.  The  Dutch  had  shown 
a  great  taste  for  birds,  and  had  made  four  or  five 
collections  of  much  interest  for  the  rarity  of  the 
species  and  the  beautiful  preparation  of  the  indi- 
viduals. An  old  sculptor  at  the  Hague  devoted 
himself  to  the  practice  of  preparing  skins,  and 
in  a  short  time  surpassed  all  those  who  had  at- 
tempted large  animals,  especially  mammalia. 

It  does  not  appear,  however,  that  either  the 
Dutch  or  the  English  had  published  any  work 
which  treated  of  the  mounting  of  animals  accord- 
ing to  system.  The  French  had  as  little  to  offer 


INTRODUCTION.  XV11 

of  their  own,  if  we  except  the  memoir  of  Mau- 
duyt,  which  being  inserted  in  an  encyclopaedia 
was  not  in  a  sufficiently  popular  shape, —  and  the 
work  of  the  Abbe  Manesse,  whose  tediousness 
frightened  every  student.  Besides,  the  systems 
of  both  these  writers  were  essentially  faulty  in 
the  means  they  offered  for  the  preservation  of 
skins.  The  alkalies  recommended  by  Manesse 
attract  the  dampness  in  moist  seasons,  and  injure 
the  feathers.  The  sulphureous  fumigations  of 
Mauduyt  have  the  same  bad  effect  in  many  in- 
stances. Up  to  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century,  a  general  want  was  felt  for  a  systematic 
work,  which  should  furnish  a  method  of  preserv- 
ing and  augmenting  the  various  Zoological  col- 
lections, which  the  increasing  taste  for  the  study 
of  Natural  History  had  brought  together  in  many 
countries  of  Europe. 

In  1802  this  defect  was  nearly  supplied;  there 
appeared  nearly  at  the  same  moment,  two  works 
on  Taxidermy  (the  art  of  preparing  skins) ;  the 
one  by  M.  Nicholas,  a  chemist,  and  the  other  by 


XV111       -  INTRODUCTION. 

M.  Henon.  M.  Nicholas  makes  an  analysis  of 
all  that  had  been  previously  written  on  the  pre- 
paration of  animals  :  this  review  comprehends 
nearly  half  the  volume.  Like  the  Abbj  Ma- 
nessse,  he  renounces  poisons  as  dangerous^  to  the 
preparers,and  insufficient  to  avert  the  destructive 
effects  of  insects  on  zoological  collections.  He 
affirms,  that  with  his  soapy  pomatum  and  tanning 
liquor,  stuffed  animals  may  be  preserved  a  long 
time.  The  drugs  which  compose  his  prepara- 
tions do  not  injure  those  who  use  them. 

In  the  work  of  Henon  and  Mouton  Fontenille, 
the  authors  had  at  first  no  other  object  than  to 
read  their  manuscript  to  the  Athenaeum  at  Ly- 
ons, of  which  they  were  members ;  they  were 
solicited  to  print  it,  and  the  work  was  published 
in  1802.  These  authors  speak  of  birds  only  ; 
they  describe  an  infinity  of  methods  practised  by 
others,  and  compare  them  with  their  own,  which 
without  doubt  are  preferable,  but  too  slow  to 
satisfy  the  impatience  of  ornithologists. 


INTRODUCTION.  XIX 

Becoeur,  a  skilful  apothecary  of  Metz,  may  be 
said  to  have  created  the  art  of  Taxidermy.  The 
arsenical  soap  invented  by  him  is  the  most  va- 
luable material  hitherto  known  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  skins  of  all  animals.  Many  birds  pre- 
pared by  him  sixty  and  seventy  years  ago,  are  still 
in  beautiful  preservation.  His  method  of  mount- 
ing both  birds  and  quadrupeds,  is  one  of  the  best 
hitherto  made  known. 

The  materials  of  the  work  which  we  now  offer 
to  the  American  reader,  have  been  drawn  from 
most  of  the  sources  indicated  above ;  the  treatise 
on  the  management  of  insects  at  the  end  of  the 
work,  we  have  taken  from  the  instructions  of  the 
naturalist  Donovan.  Several  other  compilations 
in  a  popular  shape  have  within  a  few  years  been 
collected  from  the  same  quarters.  M.  Boitard, 
an  experienced  French  naturalist,  has  published 
a  comprehensive  and  methodical  treatise,  entitled 
'Manuel  du  Naiuraliste  Preparateur,'  which  we 
have  regarded  as  the  most  judicious  in  point  of 
arrangement,  and  satisfactory  in  direction.  We 


XX  INTRODUCTION. 

•have  accordingly  made  it  the  basis  of  our  per- 
formance,—  adopting  this  author's  general  divi- 
sions of  the  subject,  and  adding  to  his  own  obser- 
vations such  remarks  of  others  as  were  judged 
necessary  to  make  the  work  complete  in  all  its 
branches. 

Boston,  June  1831. 


CONTENTS. 


OF    THE  METHODS  OF  PROCURING    OBJECTS    OF 

NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Of  Taking  Birds,  26 

Marnmiferous  Animals,  35 

Reptiles,  -38 

Fishes,  47 

Crustacea,  48 

Insects,  53 

Shell-Fish,  61 

Zoophytes,  64 

Corals,  fyc,  ib. 

Polypes,  65 

Collecting  Seeds  and  Plants,  67 

Wood,  71 

Minerals,  72 

Of  Packing  and  Transporting  objects  of  natural  history,        77 

Birds,  ib. 

Mammiferous  Animals,  79 


XX11  CONTENTS. 

Reptiles  and  Fishes,  79 

Crustacea,  80 

Insects,  ib 

Shells,  ib. 

Zoophytes,  81 

Plants,  ib. 

Minerals,  ib. 

Of  the  Instruments  necessary  to  the  practical  naturalist,         82 

Materials  for  Stuffing,  83 

Preservatives,  85 

Steeping,  88 

Liquors  for  exterior  lavation,  90 

••    internal  application,  92 

Perpetual  Preservatives  for  such  animals  as  cannot 

be  dried.  ib. 


PART    II. 

TAXIDERMY, 

Of  Skinning  Birds,  95 

Mounting  Birds,  103 

Remedies  for  occasional  difficulties,  108 

Preparation  in  demi-relief,  110 

do          in  St  Esprit,  111 

Pictures,  112 

Nests  and  Eggs,  ib. 

Of  Skinning  and  Mounting  Mammiferous  Animals,  113 


CONTENTS.  XX111 

Remedies  for  occasional  difficulties,  116 

Elephants,  119 

Hedgehogs,  123 

Fishes,  ib. 

Seals,  125 

Tortoises,  126 

Frogs,  127 

Lizards,  ib. 

Snakes,  128 

Of  Preparing  Crustacea,  129 

Insects,  ib. 

Butterflies,  ib. 

Caterpillars,  130 

Shells,  131 

Plants,  132 

Of  Skeletons,  ib. 

Natural  Skeletons,  133 

Artificial  Skeletons,  134 

Of  Embalming,  135 

Egyptian  Method,  ib. 

Embalming  Birds,  137 

Of  the  method  of  making  Artificial  Eyes,  ib. 

General  Remarks  respecting  the  preservation  of  subjects 

of  Natural  History,  142 

Of  Grouping,  145 

ON    THE    MANAGEMENT    OF    INSECTS, 

The  Egg,  149 

The  Caterpillar,  151 

Pupa,  Chrysalis,  or  Aurelia,  154 

Insects,  general  collection  of,  157 


XXIV  CONTENTS. 

Breeding  Cages,  161 

Pupa,  164 

Setting  or  preserving  of  Insects,  165 

The  Egg,  ib. 

The  Caterpillar,  166 

The  Pupa  or  Chrysalis,  168 

The  Last  or  Perfect  State,  169 

Coleopterous  Insects  or  Beetles,                                          .  ib. 
Lepidopterous  Insects;  as  Butterflies,  Hawk-Moths,  and 

Moths,  171 

Minute  Moths;  Tinea,  Tortrix,  Alucita,  &c,  176 

Neuropterous,  Hymenopterous,  and  Dipterous  Insects,  179 

Apterous  Insects,  181 

The  Cabinet,  183 

Description  of  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  at  Paris,  186 

Glossary,  201 


MANUAL 


PRACTICAL  NATURALIST 


PART    I. 

Of  the  Methods  of  procuring  Objects  of  Natural 
History. 

BY  a  singular  fatality,  the  greater  portion  of 
those  who  in  any  way  turn  their  attention"  to 
Natural  History,  constantly  neglect  their  native 
territories.  An  uncommon  plant,  or  strange  ani- 
mal from  India  or  Africa,  has  excited  the  inte- 
rest, of  numbers  among  us,  who  pass  by  with 
indifference  many  a  native  production  of  equal 
importance.  We  are  in  many  instances  better 
acquainted  with  the  animals  of  foreign  lands, 
than  with  those  which  inhabit  under  our  very 
eyes.  A  common  error,  which  affects  other  de- 
partments of  human  conduct,  may  be  designated 
as  the  cause.  What  is  familiar  to  us  and  imme- 
diately within  our  reach,  we  are  apt  to  regard  as 
of  inferior  value  to  that  which  is  of  distant  origin 
and  difficult  acquirement. 
3 


26  PRACTICAL     NATURALIST. 

It  is  true,  that  the  naturalist  who  is  desirous  of 
attaining  a  complete  perfection  in  his  study,  should 
possess  other  qualities  beside  the  knowledge  of 
preserving  such  objects  of  his  attention  as  chance 
or  a  mere  desultory  research  may  throw  in  his 
way.  He  who  would  be  a  thorough  naturalist, 
and  exhibit  a  true  enthusiasm  for  the  science, 
must  indeed  arm  himself  with  patience,  courage 
and  resolution.  He  must  visit  foreign  lands,  and 
encounter  the  fatigues  of  distant  voyages.  There 
are  treasures  invaluable  to  science  to  be  sought 
out  among  the  burning  plains  of  India,  and  the 
rugged  mountains  of  the  western  world.  These 
are  worthy  objects  of  a  noble  ambition,  but  the 
opportunity  and  means  for  the  attempt  are  at  the 
command  of  but  a  small  number.  But  let  not 
the  lover  of  natural  science  despair  if  the  means 
of  prosecuting  extensive  researches  are  not  within 
his  power.  All  nature  is  full  of  life:  and  though 
it  be  his  lot  to  find  his  endeavours  circumscribed 
within  the  limits  of  his  own  country,  he  may  still 
be  enabled  to  make  valuable  discoveries,  and  ren- 
der essential  service  to  that  branch  of  knowledge 
which  it  is  his  ambition  to  promote. 


OF    TAKING    BIRDS. 

No  one  is  ignorant  of  that  important  direction 
which  constitutes  the  first  item  in  the  celebrated 


PRACTICAL     NATURALIST.  27 

recipe  for  cooking  a  turbot.  It  may  be  expected 
of  us,  therefore,  before  we  speak  of  stuffing  the 
bird,  to  give  some  special  directions  how  to  catch 
him.  Trusting,  however,  that  the  reader  has  an- 
ticipated us  on  this  point,  we  shall  pass  over  the 
subject  of  guns  and  traps  as  supererogatory,  and 
only  remark,  that  as  regards  our  present  purpose, 
the  method  is  indifferent* 

In  whatever  manner  it  is  performed,  the  opera- 
tor should  furnish  himself  with  a  pair  of  pincers, 
paper,  cotton,  flax  or  clean  tow,  and  plaster  of 
Paris  in  powder.  Should  the  weather  be  hot, 
or  the  place  of  hunting  distant,  so  as  to  hazard 
the  spoiling  of  the  game  ere  it  can  be  sent  home, 
have  a  tin  box  containing  nettle,  mint,  and  such 
aromatic  plants  as  grow  on  the  banks  of  rivers  ; 
in  this  pack  the  birds,  after  preparing  them  as 
we  shall  presently  direct.  This  is  recommend- 
ed as  a  sure  method  by  M  Boitard,  who  al- 
leges in  its  favour  an  experience  of  more  than 
twenty  years  in  Italy  and  the  south  of  France, 
where  from  the  heat  of  the  climate  corruption  in 
ordinary  cases  takes  place  in  a  few  hours, 

When  a  bird  is  shot,  secure  him  immediately, 
that  he  may  not  soil  his  feathers  with  the  blood 
of  the  wound.  Seek  out  the  wound,  and  raise 
the  feathers  which  cover  it.  Put  a  quantity  of 
the  powdered  plaster*  upon  the  wound,  and 

*  In  these  cases,  when  plaster  is  not  to  be  had,  you  may 
substitute  dry  earth,  ashes,  or  bran. 


28  PRACTICAL     NATURALIST. 

thrust  into  it  a  plug  of  cotton  ;  then  add  more 
of  the  plaster,  and  when  the  bleeding  is  quite 
stanched,  replace  the  feathers.  Cleanse  the 
mouth  and  stop  it  with  the  tow  or  cotton,  intro- 
ducing a  quantity  of  plaster.  This  precaution 
must  be  particularly  observed  in  the  case  of 
birds  of  prey,  as  they  often  disgorge  their  food 
in  dying,  and  sometimes  after  death.  The  nos- 
trils also  should  be  plugged  with  cotton,  on  ac- 
count of  the  fetid  matter  which  commonly  escapes 
therefrom  ;  in  the  vulture  this  matter  is  so  strong 
in  odour,  that  when  the  feathers  become  imbued 
with  it,  nothing  can  remove  the  scent.  In  per- 
forming the  operation,  care  should  be  taken  not 
to  distort  the  nostrils  or  the  corners  of  the  mouth, 
as  in  many  species  of  birds  these  points  indicate 
generical  or  specific  characters. 

If  it  be  a  bird  feeding  upon  fish,  such  as  the 
pelican  or  heron,  cleanse  not  only  the  throat  but 
the  crop  and  pouch,  for  the  least  pressure  would 
force  out  their  contents  and  soil  the  plumage. 
To  empty  the  pouch  of  a  pelican,  you  have  only 
to  open  his  beak  and  take  out  the  contents  with 
the  hand.  In  a  bird  without  a  pouch,  the  pro- 
cess although  longer,  has  hardly  more  difficulty:  — 
hang  him  up  by  the  claws  with  the  head  down- 
wards, shake  him,  and  squeeze  the  neck  with  a 
gentle  pressure,  passing  from  the  breast  down  to 
the  mouth  ;  this  will  force  out  the  contents  of 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  29 

the  stomach.  After  this,  stuff  his  mouth  with 
plaster  and  cotton  as  above  directed.  The 
escape  of  the  excrement  is  prevented  in  the 
same  way. 

This  is  the  moment  when  the  naturalist  should 
make  the  following  indispensable  observations. 
Open  his  eyes  and  take  exact  note  of  their  co- 
lour;—  measure  his  extreme  length  from  the 
point  of  the  beak  to  the  end  of  the  tail;  —  and, 
if  you  have  had  opportunity  before  shooting  him 
of  observing  his  attitude,  note  it  down,  that  when 
he  is  stuffed  he  may  be  placed  in  the  same  posi- 
tion. These  observations  may  consist  chiefly  of 
the  following. 

1.  Does  he  perch,*  or  otherwise  ? 

2.  Are  his   thighsf  bare,  or  hidden  by   the 
plumage  of  the  belly  ? 

3.  Is  his  body  while  at  rest  placed  vertically, 
obliquely,  or  horizontally? 

4.  Are  the  wings  drawn  up,  or  hanging  down  ? 
—  Do  they  cross  over  the  tail? — Are  they  con- 
founded and  united  with  the  feathers  of  the  breast 
and  back  for  a  third,  one-half,  or  two-thirds  of 
their  length  from  the  top? — Do  their  tips  reach 

*  To  perch ,  in  the  language  of  ornithology,  is  to  follow  the 
habit  of  alighting  on  a  branch  or  rail,  in  contradistinction  to 
alighting  on  the  ground  or  any  flat  surface:  Thus  a  robin 
perches,  a  duck  does  not. 

t  In  the  present  instance,  the  word  thigh  is  used  in  the  popu- 
lar application.  The  scientific  nomenclature  gives  another  name 
to  this  limb  of  the  bird. 


30  PRACTICAL    NATURALIST. 

to  the  end  of  the  tail?  or  half  its  length?  or  a 
quarter?  &c. 

5.  What  is  the  exact  colour  of  the  claws, — 
beak, — ceres, — and  glands? 

These  remarks,  although  they  may  appear  un- 
necessarily minute,  yet  are  very  essential.  One 
example  out  of  a  thousand  will  suffice.  Suppose 
you  have  shot  a  young  male  or  old  female  cres- 
serette;*  the  most  exact  description  will  not  ena- 
ble you  to  distinguish  it  from  a  female^crewereK- 
etfe,  unless  you  note  the  precise  length,  which  is 
two  inches  longer  in  the  first  mentioned  bird :  or 
unless  the  wings  and  tail  be  compared,  as  the 
wings  in  the  cresserelle  reach  but  three-fourths 
the  length  of  the  tail.  These  are  the  only  clear 
distinctions  of  the  two  species. 

Having  followed  the  above  directions,  hold  the 
bird  by  die  bill,  and  shake  him  gently  to  get  rid 
of  the  superfluous  plaster,  and  return  the  feathers 
to  their  natural  position  ;  in  aid  of  this  you  may 
blow  upon  him,  but  always  in  the  direction  of 
the  feathers :  then  roll  up  a  sheet  of  strong  pa- 
per into  a  cone,  and  place  him  head  first  within, 
taking  care  not  to  derange  the  feathers,  it  being 
extremely  difficult  afterwards  to  replace  them 
properly :  the  legs  should  be  stretched  along  the 
tail,  and  the  wings  placed  close  :  then  close  up 

*  The  Kestrel  of  Bnfibn,  the  Stannel  or  Wind-Hover  of 
other*.  Faleo  tmmuneulus  of  Gmelin . 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  31 

the  package,  after  placing  within  the  notes  you 
have  taken  respecting  the  bird  :  then  put  it  care- 
fully in  a  box  or  bag,  and  if  you  have  several  of 
these  packages  put  the  largest  at  the  bottom. 

When  you  take  a  bird  in  a  snare  or  net,  be 
careful  in  killing  him  that  he  does  not  beat  his 
feathers  off  in  struggling  ;  seize  him  by  the  two 
fingers  under  the  wings,  between  the  breast  and 
the  belly,  and  pinch  him  till  he  is  suffocated. 
Taking  with  nets  is  a  tolerable  method  of 
obtaining  small  birds  in  good  condition,  but  re- 
quires a  degree  of  skill  which  is  only  attained  by 
long  practice.  Its  success  too  is  hardly  certain, 
except  during  the  spring;  when,  in  the  season  of 
pairing,  the  feathered  tribe  lose  their  timidity  and 
allow  themselves  to  be  approached. 

Many  interesting  subjects  are  sometimes  taken 
by  birdlime,  but  they  are  often  quite  spoiled  by 
this  substance.  Nevertheless,  if  a  bird  taken  in 
this  manner  have  saved  enough  of  his  plumage 
to  render  him  worth  preserving,  and  his  rarity 
make  it  an  object,  he  may  with  care  and  patience 
be  cleansed,  thus :  — Rub  the  limed  feathers  with 
fresh  butter  till  the  lime  and  butter  coalesce, 
which  you  may  know  by  the  mixture's  not  stick- 
ing ;  remove  as  much  as  you  can  scrape  off  with 
a  knife,  and  wash  the  remainder  with  a  strong  so- 
lution of  potash  ;  the  lime  being  removed,  wash 
again  with  clear  water  and  dry  it  with  powdered 


32  PRACTICAL    NATURALIST. 

plaster.  For  want  of  potash,  make  a  strong  ley 
of  equal  parts  of  ashes  and  water ;  let  it  stand 
twenty-four  hours,  and  decant  it  clear.  If  nei- 
ther of  these  lotions  be  procurable,  you  may  use 
very  strong  soap-suds  several  times  renewed. 

Some  persons,  after  applying  the  butter  to  the 
limed  feathers,  add  a  quantity  of  ether,  and  af- 
terwards wipe  the  feathers  dry  with  tow.  This 
is  doubtless  the  most  expeditious  way,  but  has 
the  disadvantage  of  discolouring  the  plumage. 

In  addition  to  the  above  methods  of  procuring 
subjects,  there  is  another  which  is  by  no  means 
to  be  neglected  ;  this  is,  to  go  to  the  markets 
where  game  is  sold.  But  ere  you  purchase  a 
bird,  however  valuable  he  may  appear,  satisfy 
yourself  that  he  is  capable  of  preservation.  Exa- 
mine first  the  claws,  the  bill,  and  the  large  beam- 
feathers  of  the  wings  and  tail.  If  none  of  these 
are  wanting,  see  whether  the  skull  be  not  broken, 
as  many  persons  crush  with  the  hand  the  heads 
of  those  birds  which  they  take  in  nets,  or,  when 
shooting,  finish  them  by  beating  their  heads  ;  in 
these  cases,  the  bones  of  the  head  being  fractured, 
it  will  be  difficult  to  restore  it  to  its  true  shape, 
and  with  any  care  it  could  not  be  arranged  with 
firmness.  Still,  in  the  case  of  a  very  rare  subject, 
these  circumstances  will  not  detract  wholly  from 
its  value. 

Examine  moreover  whether  the  flesh  be  suffi- 
ciently free  from  putrefaction  to  preserve  the 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  33 

feathers  upon  the  skin  in  the  process  of  flaying. 
This  you  cannot  always  know  by  the  smell,  for 
the  wound  will  sometimes  exhale  an  odour  which 
infects  no  other  part.  Examine  attentively  the 
small  feathers  at  the  corners  of  the  bill  and  the 
cheeks  ;  if  they  hold  firmly,  the  bird  is  capable  of 
preservation,  but  if  you  can  rub  off  these  feathers 
with  the  finger,  and  the  skin  beneath  feels  damp, 
abandon  him  as  unfit  for  your  purpose  ;  he  would 
part  with  his  plumage  or  come  quite  to  pieces 
the  moment  you  attempted  to  take  off  the  skin. 

Much  attention  is  requisite  in  the  selection  of 
birds  ;  upon  this  depends  the  freshness  and  bril- 
liancy of  colour,  which  gives  them  their  greatest 
value.  A  bird  reared  in  a  cage  loses  his  grace- 
fulness, the  beauty  of  his  dress,  and  sometimes 
the  characteristics  of  his  species.  It  is  only  upon 
the  summit  of  the  craggy  rock,  that  we  find  the 
enormous  bird  of  prey  armed  with  his  long  and 
sharp  talons.  It  is  upon  the  sandy  shores  of  the 
ocean  or  the  banks  of  rivers,  that  we  must  look 
for  the  feathered  combatants  armed  with  a  splen- 
did cuirass  of  long  and  slender  plumes ;  the  wood- 
pecker and  the  sparrow  are  decked  in  the  gaudy 
dress  of  the  pairing-season,  solely  when  they  in- 
habit the  solitude  of  the  forest.  The  naturalist 
therefore  will  not  make  his  selections  either  from 
the  barn-yard,  or  the  aviary  of  the  bird-fancier. 
Nature  must  be  studied  in  the  fields. 


34  PRACTICAL     NATURALIST. 

The  nomenclature  of  birds  is  at  present  thrown 
into  much  confusion,  by  the  errors  of  writers  who 
have  mistaken  young  individuals,  females,  and 
old  males  of  a  single  class,  for  different  species. 
Men  of  high  talent,  Buffon  himself,  cannot  be 
exempted  from  this  imputation.  This  great  natu- 
ralist has  given  the  name  of  faucon  to  the  falco 
peregrinus  of  Gmelin  ; — he  has  made  one  species 
of  the  full-grown  male  ;  a  second  species  of  the 
young  male,*vhich  he  has  named  faucon-sors;  a 
third  species  of  the  year-old  male,  which  he  has 
called  faucon  noir  passager;  and  a  fourth  spe- 
cies of  the  very  old  male,  which  has  received 
from  him  the  title  of  lanier.  An  intelligent 
amateur  should  employ  all  the  means  in  his 
power  to  collect  every  variety  of  age  and  sex, 
as  well  as  that  variety  occasioned  by  moulting. 
He  who  in  this  manner  is  enabled  to  make  the 
acquisition  of  a  whole  genus,  has  rendered  a  true 
service  to  the  study ;  his  cabinet  will  possess 
more  value  in  the  eyes  of  a  naturalist,  than  if  he 
had  heaped  together  thousands  of  individuals, 
rare  in  themselves,  but  isolated  in  respect  to 
classification. 

Birds  of  prey  in  general,  and  particularly 
those  of  the  hawk  kind  (genus  falco),  deserve 
the  first  attention  of  the  naturalist ;  next  follow 
those  which  frequent  the  shores  of  the  sea  and 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  35 

the  banks   of   rivers  ;    afterwards  those  of  the 
passer  tribe.* 


OF    TAKING    MAMMIFEROUS    ANIMALS. f 

No  one  is  ignorant  of  the  manner  of  hunting 
mammiferous  animals,  such  as  the  wolf,  bear, 
fox,  &c,  but  the  industry  of  sportsmen  has  never 
been  exercised  upon  small  game,  like  dormice, 
field-mice,  and  the  rest  of  the  same  tribe  ;  in 
consequence,  their  history  is  confused,  little 
known,  and  sufficient  of  course  to  establish  the 
reputation  of  any  one  who  will  devote  himself 
to  the  study  of  it  exclusively.  Common  as 
these  animals  are  in  our  forests,  they  are  ex- 
tremely rare  in  scientific  collections.  They  may 
be  shot  with  a  fowling-piece  during  the  evening 
twilight,  upon  the  skirts  of  woods,  near  the  fruit- 
trees  which  are  scattered  about  those  places ;  at 
this  hour  the  dormice  and  squirrels  profit  by  the 
last  rays  of  the  sun,  to  quit  their  holes  and  skip 
from  branch  to  branch  in  quest  of  food ;  the 
weasel,  ermine  and  polecat  glide  silently  among 
the  thickets  in  search  of  the  lark,  who  has  gone 

*  The  sixth  order  of  birds,  according  to  the  Linnaean  system, 
comprising  all  the  singing-birds. 

t  Animals  which  nourish  their  young  by  giving  suck,  are^ 
termed  mammiferous. 


36  PRACTICAL    NATURALIST. 


to  rest  in  the  fields.  They  may  also  be  taken 
in  trap-cages,  similar  to  those  used  for  birds  — 
with  this  difference,  that  wire  or  sheet-iron  is  to 
be  substituted  for  wood  ;  the  trap  may  be  baited 
with  nuts  and  fruit  of  various  sorts. 

If  the  animal  be  large,  he  will  require  no  pre- 
paration previous  to  skinning,  for  which  process 
we  refer  the  reader  to  a  subsequent  chapter. 
But  if  it  be  a  small  creature,  or  if  his  long  and 
shining  fur  appear  in  danger  from  staining,  as 
that  of  the  ermine  for  example,  stanch  the 
bleeding,  plug  up  the  wounds  with  cotton  or  tow, 
and  apply  the  pulverized  plaster  in  abundance 
till  the  whole  be  dry ;  stop  up  in  the  same  man- 
ner the  mouth,  ears,  nostrils,  and  all  openings  of 
the  body,  to  hinder  the  flow  of  blood,  and  the 
extravasation  of  the  matter  contained  in  the  sto- 
mach and  intestines.  If  it  be  necessary  to  pre- 
serve him  a  long  time  before  he  can  be  skinned, 
you  may  do  this  by  a  method  which  has  always 
been  found  successful: — Open  the  belly,  and 
take  out  the  intestines  and  other  viscera ;  fill  the 
cavity  with  powdered  charcoal ;  then  making  the 
body  as  clean  and  dry  as  possible,  put  a  thick 
layer  of  charcoal-dust  in  a  box  and  place  the 
animal  within;  add  more  of  the  charcoal  and 
cover  him  entirely,  so  that  he  may  be  completely 
surrounded,  and  no  part  touch  the  side  of  the 
box;  then  pack  the  whole  snug,  that  nothing 


PRACTICAL     NATURALIST.  37 

may  be  deranged  during  conveyance  from  place 
to  place. 

Game  packed  in  this  manner  may  be  kept 
fresh  three  months,  but  no  air  must  be  admitted 
for  an  instant  during  this  time ;  otherwise  what- 
ever care  you  may  exert  in  replacing  it,  the  flesh 
will  speedily  corrupt. 

The  smallest  quadrupeds  may  be  kept  for 
years  by  only  putting  them  in  spirit,  taking  care 
to  keep  them  entirely  submerged. 

For  those  who  have  opportunities  of  procur- 
ing rare  animals  alive,  in   foreign  countries,  it 
may  be  of  service  to  remark,  that  the  younger 
animals  are,  the  easier  it  is  to  accustom  them  to 
live  in  their  cages.     They  will  at  first  require 
particular  care,  and  must  always  be  nourished 
some  weeks  on  shore  before  they  are  embarked. 
You  cannot  take  too  much  pains  to  tame  them. 
An  animal  who  is  not  frightened  at  the  sight  of 
those  who  attend  him,  is  always  better,  and  more 
able  to  resist  the  fatigues  of  a  voyage  than  when 
he  remains  wild;  and  there  is  scarcely  any  ani- 
mal which  we  cannot  tame  by  good  treatment. 
An   excess  of  food,  when   animals   are   shut  up 
and  not  able  to  take  exercise,  is  very  injurious 
to  them.    The  surest  method  of  preserving  them, 
is  to  give  them  only  what  is  necessary.     After 
this,  the  greatest  requisite  is  cleanliness.      It  is 
4 


38  PRACTICAL    NATURALIST. 

also  necessary  to  take  precautions  that  such  ani- 
mals be  not  worried  by  passengers. 


OF    TAKING    REPTILES. 

This  class  of  beings  comprehends  two  princi- 
pal divisions;  the  first  containing  oviparous  quad- 
rupeds, frogs,  lizards  and  tortoises,  and  the  se- 
cond, snakes.  Each  of  these  divisions  offers  to 
our  researches,  a  different  animal  in  respect  to 
manners,  shape,  and  locality  of  habitation;  the 
method  of  hunting  them  is  therefore  dissimilar. 

Frogs  delight  in  marshes,  ponds,  and  especially 
miry  ditches.  They  are  found  in  watery  pastures, 
and  upon  roads  after  rain,  or  when  a  sultry  and 
close  air  prognosticates  a  storm.  You  may  seek 
for  them  with  good  success  in  stony  places  over- 
grown with  wood,  in  the  clefts  of  rocks,  and  the 
trunks  of  old  trees  ;  sometimes  they  will  be  found 
upon  trees  and  in  hedges,  wrhere  they  sit  crouched 
upon  leaves  which  they  closely  resemble  in  co- 
lour, and  which  cause  them  easily  to  escape 
notice. 

Notwithstanding  the  vulgar  notions  respecting 
some  of  this  tribe,  particularly  the  toad,  no  spe- 
cies of  them  is  venomous ;  and  very  singularly, 
the  only  one  that  offers  any  appearance  of  dan- 
ger, is  the  one  which  is  eaten.  The  skin  of  the 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  39 

common  frog  exudes  a  viscous  matter,  sufficiently 
acrid  to  cause  a  painful  smarting  to  the  eyelids, 
if  they  happen  to  be  rubbed  by  the  hands  which 
have  touched  one  of  these  reptiles ;  but  the  dan- 
ger extends  no  farther. 

Most  of  the  individuals  of  this  class  are  clumsy 
in  their  movement,  and  cannot  easily  escape  when 
you  have  once  discovered  their  retreat.  You 
may  catch  them  with  the  hand  without  using  any 
precaution ;  but  those  who  cannot  overcome  their 
repugnance  for  these  harmless  creatures,  may  use 
leather  gloves,  or  nippers  made  for  the  purpose. 
Some  of  the  species  of  frogs,  those  in  particular 
which  haunt  wet  places,  escape  with  a  good  deal 
of  agility ;  these  you  may  take  with  a  small  net 
stretched  upon  a  hoop  ;  they  may  also  be  caught 
with  a  hook  and  line,  thus: — bait  your  hook 
(which  should  be  very  small,)  with  a  grasshopper 
or  other  insect,  or  even  with  a  bit  of  red  cloth ; 
draw  it  near  the  frog  upon  the  surface  of  the  water, 
or  on  the  ground,  taking  care  to  keep  it  in  motion 
like  a  living  insect  ;  many  species  of  frogs  may 
be  drawn  to  a  great  distance  by  the  view  of  this 
bait,  and  it  is  not  uncommon  to  see  a  dozen  at 
a  time  hopping  after  it  and  fighting  among  them- 
selves for  the  bite.  Some  kinds  are  less  vora- 
cious or  more  prudent,  particularly  toads;  in  pre- 
senting these  writh  the  bait,  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  frighten  them ;  you  must  bring  it  to  their 


40  PRACTICAL    NATURALIST. 

very  mouths,  in  which  case  they  can  rarely  re- 
sist the  temptation. 

With  regard  to  tortoises,  the  persons  who  in- 
habit those  places  where  they  abound,  are  best 
acquainted  with  their  haunts  and  the  manner  of 
taking  them.  Sea-tortoises  are  fond  of  those 
immense  lagoons  wrhich  are  covered  with  a  small 
depth  of  water,  where  they  can  feed  upon  the 
sea-weed  and  other  marine  productions  growing 
in  the  sand  at  the  bottom.  Here  you  may  har- 
poon them  in  your  canoe  ;  sometimes  you  may 
take  them  just  as  they  are  leaving  the  water  to 
deposit  their  eggs  upon  the  sand  in  the  sunshine ; 
at  this  time  they  are  caught  easily,  and  if  there 
are  many,  turn  them  on  their  backs  and  they 
cannot  escape.  Land-tortoises  are  found  in 
marshy  places  near  the  sea,  and  sometimes  in 
the  fresh  water  of  ponds  and  rivers. 

Lizards  inhabit  both  land  and  water.  Some 
kinds,  as  the  crocodile,  are  dangerous  from  their 
size  and  the  terrible  power  of  their  jaws,  armed 
with  long  and  sharp  teeth  ;  these  you  cannot 
master  till  you  have  shot  them  with  a  gun,  or 
overpowered  with  clubs.  Others  of  a  small 
kind,  like  tritons  and  some  species  of  salaman- 
ders, dwelling  in  marshes  and  ponds,  may  be 
caught  easily  with  hooks  or  nets.  A  third  class 
are  found  only  in  close  and  damp  woody  spots, 
among  subterraneous  ruins,  and  under  rocks  in 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  41 

unfrequented  places  ;  among  these  are  the  land- 
salamanders  which  you  may  take  without  diffi- 
culty, as  they  are  slow  of  movement,  and  have 
no  means  of  escape  or  defence. 

The  most  numerous  class  of  lizards  are  those 
which  inhabit  the  trunks  of  trees,  old  walls  with 
a  southerly  exposure,  slopes  of  ground  with  the 
same  aspect,  among  fallen  leaves,  and  in  woody 
places  not  sufficiently  grown  to  shade  entirely 
the  low  shrubs  and  dead  leaves,  where  they  love 
to  hide.  These  creatures  are  so  quick  in  their 
motions,  that  the  eye  can  scarcely  trace  their 
progress  ;  in  addition,  they  are  courageous  and 
snappish,  and  bite  with  their  toothless  jaws  so 
firmly,  that  no  method  but  killing  will  oblige  them 
to  loosen  their  hold  ;  the  wounds  which  they 
give,  however,  are  not  dangerous.  Some  of 
these  little  creatures  are  decked  in  the  most 
brilliant  colours  ;  all  are  very  difficult  to  catch  ; 
they  must  be  taken  by  surprise  or  artifice,  but 
the  first  method  has  the  inconvenience  almost 
always  of  mutilating  them  irreparably ;  their  tail 
is  extremely  delicate,  and  broken  by  the  slightest 
blow. 

To  catch  this  animal  without  injury,  you  must 
come  upon  him  without  being  seen,  and  strike 
him  with  a  flexible  rod  so  as  to  hit  him  upon  the 
back,  just  between  his  two  pair  of  legs ;  thus 
breaking  the  back-bone,  when  you  may  secure 
4* 


42  PRACTICAL    NATURALIST. 

him  without  difficulty.  Some  of  them  have  so 
keen  a  sight  and  smell,  that  it  is  almost  impossi- 
ble to  surprise  them ;  among  these  are  the  green 
and  occellated  lizard  of  the  south  of  France. 
Take  a  very  small  hook,  and  attach  it  to  a  horse- 
hair line  of  three  or  four  threads  strongly  twisted  ; 
bait  this  with  a  large  fly,  and  hang  it  before  the 
door  of  his  dwelling;  when  he  catches  a  view  of 
it,  he  will  not  fail  to  bite. 

Snakes  should  be  hunted  with  precaution  ; 
some  of  an  enormous  size,  which  inhabit  the 
burning  plains  of  Africa,  attack  and  conquer 
powerful  animals  by  the  aid  of  their  prodigious 
strength  and  courage.  It  is  particularly  in  hot 
climates  that  we  find  those  species  the  most  va- 
luable for  their  rarity  and  splendid  colours.  Cold 
and  temperate  countries  possess  but  few.  The 
viper  has  the  upper-jaw  armed  with  one,  two, 
three,  and  four  moveable  fangs,  which  closely 
resemble  the  claws  of  a  cat ;  these  fangs  have 
a  hollow  through  the  whole  of  their  length,  by 
which  the  poison  is  conveyed  into  the  wound. 
The  bite  is  not  commonly  mortal ;  but  in  many 
circumstances  may  become  so,  especially  if  the 
person  bitten  be  not  of  a  robust  temperament  and 
healthy  blood.  Remedies  should  be  promptly 
applied  ;  the  most  sure  is  volatile  alkali  (sal  vola- 
tile), a  few  drops  of  which  should  be  swallowed 
in  a  glass  of  water ;  rub  also  the  wound  with 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  43 

the  same,  and  bind  on  a  linen  cloth  dipped 
therein, 

It  would  be  serviceable  here  to  specify  the  cha- 
racters which  distinguish  the  venomous  snakes 
from  the  harmless,  but  unfortunately  these  marks 
are  not  sufficiently  striking  to  catch  the  view  at 
first  sight; — at  any  rate,  beware  of  the  serpent 
with  a  triangular  head,  flat  at  the  top,  wide  to- 
ward the  body,  and  with  a  narrow  neck.  These 
reptiles  often  sleep  stretched  out  upon  rocks  in 
the  sun,  or  upon  dry  leaves  ;  if  you  surprise 
them  at  this  moment,  you  may  be  sure  their 
first  movement  will  be  to  bite  or  attempt  an  es- 
cape. It  seems  as  if  nature,  in  furnishing  them 
with  the  most  terrible  of  all  weapons,  had  with- 
held the  privilege  of  abusing  them;  for  every 
noxious  species  is  so  slow  of  movement,  as  to 
be  unable  to  inflict  a  bite  except  by  surprise. 
From  the  moment  you  have  discovered  them,  it 
is  quite  easy  either  to  shun  or  attack  them  with 
advantage  ;  they  are  too  clumsy  to  spring  upon 
you,  and  hardly  able  to  escape  by  flight. 

They  should  be  managed  with  precaution,  not 
only  alive  but  dead.  Serious,  results  have  fol- 
lowed the  imprudence  of  persons  who  have 
scratched  themselves  with  the  fangs  of  a  rattle- 
snake, dead  and  dry  for  several  years.  There 
are  instances  of  persons  dangerously  bitten  by 
the  head  of  a  viper,  which  hatl  been  separated 


44  PRACTICAL    NATURALIST. 

from  the  trunk  more  than  forty-eight  hours. 
Again  you  must  be  on  your  guard,  when  you 
have  taken  one  apparently  dead ;  these  crea- 
tures, when  they  find  themselves  hotly  pursued 
and  without  the  means  of  escape,  have  the  cun- 
ning to  lie  still  and  counterfeit  death ;  wo  to  the 
rash  mortal  who  trusts  the  deception ! 

Snakes  are  fond  of  rocky  and  woody  spots, 
lying  open  during  most  of  the  day  to  the 
sun,  'and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  a  marsh 
or  river,  whither  they  go  in  hot  weather  to 
hunt  the  frogs,  shrew-mice,  and  little  birds. 
Some,  not  content  with  occasional  visits  to  the 
banks  of  rivers,  take  up  their  abode  there  among 
the  stumps  and  bushes  ;  others  keep  about  the 
rocks,  among  the  ruins  of  old  buildings,  and 
even  in  the  dunghills  of  yards  little  frequented. 
Every  country  and  village  has  its  particular  lo- 
cality, where  they  are  most  abundant;  the  inha- 
bitants entertain  too  much  dread  of  these  rep- 
tiles, to  be  ignorant  of  the  precise  spots. 

Upon  setting  out  in  pursuit  of  them,  provide 
yourself  with  a  pair  of  long-handled  nippers  or 
tongs,  a  leather  sack  in  which  you  should  sprin- 
kle a  quantity  of  snuff,  and  a  net  of  the  following 
make: — It  should  be  a  dip-net  with  very  small 
meshes,  or  of  a  substance  sufficiently  transparent 
to  enable  you  to  see  what  is  inclosed;  the  upper 
edge  of  the  hoop  to  which  the  net  is  attached 
must  be  set  with  a  row  of  sharp  iron  teeth,  half 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  45 

an  inch  long,  and  not  above  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
apart ;  to  the  hoop  attach  a  handle  three  or  four 
feet  long,  obliquely  joining  the  hoop,  so  that  you 
may   hold   the   mouth  of  the  net   flat  upon  the 
ground  without  bringing  the  handle  to  a  level. 
With  this   you   may   hold  the  reptile,  whether 
snake   or  lizard,  secure   upon  the  ground  ;   the 
teeth   will  prevent  his  escape  underneath,  if  he 
be  wholly  within  the  circumference  of  the  hoop ; 
and   if  he  be   partly   without,  he   will  be    fast 
pinned  to   the  earth.     In  both  cases,  it  will  be 
easy  to  kill  him  without  tearing  the  skin.     Throw 
him  into  your  sack,  where  the  snufFwill  despatch 
him  if  he  be  not  previously  dead.     In  the  same 
sack  you  may  put  your  frogs,  toads,  lizards,  &c. 
They  may  then  undergo  the  following  prepar- 
ation.    Wash  them  in  water  several  times,  and 
extract  the  contents  of  the  stomach ;  you    may 
judge  of  the  quantity  of  these,  by  the  stuffed  and 
prominent   condition   of  the   belly.      It  is   well 
known  that  a  snake  no  bigger  round  than   the 
finger,  and  with  a  head  of  the  size  of  the  thumb, 
will  swallow  a  toad   as  big  as  the  fist ;   this  sur- 
prising voracity  is  owing  to  the  singular  conforma- 
tion of  his  jaws,  whose  elastic  ligaments  permit 
the    enormous   distention.       When    you    find    a 
snake's  belly  stuffed  to  this  degree,  hold  him  up 
by  the  tail,  and  with  the  other  hand  squeeze  the 
swallowed  mass  downward  to  the  mouth,  where 


46  PRACTICAL    NATURALIST. 

commonly  it  will  stop  ;  then  placing  him  on  a 
table,  force  open  his  jaws  by  prying  within  them 
strongly  and  repeatedly ;  when  his  throat  is 
widely  distended,  you  may  draw  out  the  mass 
by  a  corkscrew  attached  to  a  long  handle  ;  after 
this,  wash  him  again,  and  dry  him  by  the  fre- 
quent application  of  a  cloth  ;  you  may  then  put 
him  in  spirits. 

The  best  liquor  for  preserving  not  only  rep- 
tiles, but  all  other  subjects  for  Natural  History, 
without  doubt  is  alcohol  or  spirits  of  wine,  as 
this  is  in  no  danger  of  freezing ;  still  it  has  some 
disadvantages; — in  the  first  place,  it  is  costly; 
secondly,  it  is  apt  to  discolour  the  subjects  when 
too  strong  (the  proper  strength  may  be  fixed  at 
the  18th  or  20th  degree  of  Baume's  areometer); 
in  the  third  place,  it  quickly  evaporates  when 
the  vessel  is  not  hermetically  sealed.  In  the 
course  of  this  work  we  shall  give  the  composi- 
tion of  several  liquors,  which  in  many  cases  may 
be  advantageously  substituted.  Every  sort  of 
alcohol  is  alike  useful  for  the  present  purpose, 
whether  manufactured  from  wine,  the  peach, 
potato,  grain,  or  molasses. 

If  you  design  to  keep  a  subject  in  liquor  for  a 
great  length  of  time,  let  it  first  saturate  therein  a 
day  or  two ;  then  take  it  out,  and  wipe  off  the 
mucosity  which  has  gathered  upon  it;  after 
which,  put  it  in  fresh  liquor.  Without  this  in- 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  47 

dispensable  precaution,  the  fluids  of  the  animal 
will  unite  with  the  spirit,  and  weaken  it  to  such 
a  degree  that  the  whole  will  be  unable  to  pre- 
serve it  from  corruption. 

In  concluding  this  part,  we  may  remind  the 
young  naturalist  who  wishes  to  collect  reptiles, 
that  the  months  of  May  and  June  are  the  best 
for  his  purpose  ;  at  this  time  the  greater  part 
have  cast  their  slough,  and  appear  in  colours 
much  more  brilliant  than  at  any  later  period. 


OF    TAKING    FISH. 

It  will  be  needless  to  go  into  details  upon  this 
subject ;  every  land  has  a  class  of  people  who 
make  it  an  occupation.  The  naturalist,  instead 
of  furnishing  himself  with  the  whole  train  of  im- 
plements necessary  for  the  business,  will  find  it 
more  advantageous  to  procure  from  the  fisher- 
men whatever  they  may  acquire  worthy  of  his 
notice. 

Fresh-water  fish  are  easily  obtained ;  with 
those  of  the  sea  it  is  different  ;  most  of  the  art 
that  can  be  exerted  in  this  department,  consists 
in  profiting  by  the  occasions  which  mere  hazard 
offers.  There  are  few  fishermen  upon  the  sea- 
coast  who  do  not  at  times,  especially  after  a  long 
or  violent  storm,  find  in  their  nets  some  individual 
of  a  tribe  altogether  unknown.  If  you  could 


48  PRACTICAL    NATURALIST. 

establish  a  regular  correspondence  with  a  num- 
ber of  these  persons  at  different  places,  you  may 
be  certain  of  receiving  unquestionable  rarities. 
No  branch  of  natural  history  has  made  slower 
advances  than  this,  —  for  the  simple  reason,  that 
the  method  just  recommended  has  been  very 
rarely  employed,  although  it  happens  to  be  the 
only  one  which  can  lead  to  any  satisfactory  re- 
sults. '  I  have  a  striking  instance,'  observes  M, 
Boitard,  '  within  my  own  knowledge.  A  friend 
of  mine  made  a  journey  four  years  ago  to  Mar- 
seilles, where,  upon  the  most  frequented  part 
of  the  coast  of  France,  there  was  little  apparent 
chance  of  any  new  discovery ;  he  found  means 
to  engage  a  fisherman  in  his  employ,  who  since 
that  time  has  transmitted  him  various  subjects 
altogether  unknown  to  the  Museum  of  Natural 
History  at  Paris.' 

The  only  preliminary  preparation  necessary  to 
a  fish,  is  to  wipe  off  the  slimy  matter  from  the 
scales,  and  dry  him  by  the  frequent  application 
of  a  cloth.  He  may  then  be  put  in  liquor  as 
above  directed  of  reptiles. 

OF    TAKING    CRUSTACEOUS    ANIMALS.* 

Most  of  these  dwell  in  the  water ;    few  are 

*  That  class,  chiefly  aquatic,  which  are  covered  with  a  semi- 
calcareous  crust,  and  are  furnished  with  jaws,  feeders  and  eyes; 
thus  a  lobster  is  a  crustaceous  animal. 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  49 

found  at  a  distance  from  it,  save  some  species  of 
crabs.  The  greater  number  inhabit  shallows, 
and  rocks  covered  by  the  sea  ;  some  in  rivers, 
springs  and  brooks;  all  of  them  are  carnivorous, 
and  feed  upon  the  dead  carcasses  of  other  ani- 
mals. 

The  land  species  should  be  sought  for  in  moist 
woody  places,  on  the  slopes  of  mountains,  in  the 
trunks  of  old  trees,  in  the  clefts  of  rocks,  and 
concealed  in  thick  bushes ;  but  always  as  before 
remarked,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  sea,  they 
being  obliged  to  resort  thither  to  lay  their  eggs. 
They  march  commonly  in  troops ;  so  that  upon 
meeting  with  an  individual,  you  may  be  sure  by 
looking  further  to  discover  many  more. 

Those  of  the  salt  and  those  of  fresh  water 
have  nearly  the  same  habits,  and  are  consequent- 
ly taken  in  the  same  way.  Procure  an  iron-hoop, 
larger  or  smaller  according  to  the  size  of  the  spe- 
cies you  are  fishing  for  ;  attach  a  net  to  its  cir- 
cumference, and  furnish  it  with  a  long  handle  ; 
bait  the  net  with  a  piece  of  meat,  and  if  you 
want  the  marine  species,  place  it  under  the  sur- 
face in  the  mouth  of  a  small  stream  when  the 
tide  is  coming  in ;  if  the  river  species  be  your 
object,  sink  it  near  a  clump  of  roots  or  a  heap 
of  stones,  in  a  cool,  clear,  running  stream;  after 
a  few  hours  raise  it,  and  you  will  find  it  covered 
with  the  objects  of  your  search. 


50  PRACTICAL    NATURALIST. 

• 

Some  of  them  have  the  custom  of  hiding  them- 
selves in  a  shell.  The  cancellus,and  the  rest  of 
the  same  kind,  are  soft  in  the  lower  parts,  and 
unable  to  resist  the  slightest  blow ;  these  have 
the  habit  of  seeking  out  a  univalve  shell  and  be- 
stowing themselves  safely  within,  leaving  exposed 
nothing  but  the  head  and  their  formidable  claws, 
kept  upon  the  watch  for  the  small  insects  which 
constitute  their  food ;  the  slightest  alarm  will 
drive  them  to  these  retreats  ;  they  drag,  them 
about  wherever  they  go,  and  abandon  them  only 
when  their  bodies  grow  too  big  for  their  cover- 
ing, at  which  time  they  cast  them  off  and  seek 
larger  ones.  The  value  of  these  when  they  are 
taken,  consists  in  the  shell  ;  they  should  in  con- 
sequence be  caught  together,  and  not  separated. 

Some  individuals  of  the  crab  kind,  too  weak 
to  resist  their  numerous  enemies,  creep  into  the 
shell  of  an  oyster  or  a  muscle,  where  they  dwell 
in  perfect  harmony  with  the  owner;  the  intruder 
thus  provides  himself  with  an  impregnable  for- 
tress, but  which  does  not  allow  him  the  perfect 
liberty  of  going  in  and  out  at  pleasure ;  to  exer- 
cise this  privilege,  the  crab  must  wait  till  the 
oyster  opens  his  shell  to  take  a  sup  of  water. 
This  kind  will  not  be  found  in  the  water  ;  you 
must  look  for  them  in  the  shells  of  bivalvular 
fish,  at  certain  seasons  known  to  fishermen. 

Those  of  a  larger  size,  as  lobsters,  generally 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  51 

follow  the  tide  as  it  rises,  and  at  ebb  remain 
caught  in  the  weirs  of  the  fishermen  ;  they  are 
abundant,  and  you  will  commonly  have  no  diffi- 
culty but  in  making  a  choice. 

Finally,  the  naturalist  should  leave  no  recess 
unexplored ;  rocks,  cavities  in  the  mud  and  roots, 
either  upon  the  sea-shore  or  in  the  beds  of  rivers, 
the  sea-weed,  the  sand  —  all  these  places  upon  a 
close  scrutiny  will  recompense  his  researches. 

Some  authors  recommend  these  subjects  to  be 
dried  in  the  sun,  or  in  an  oven  or  stove,  and  thus 
preserved  by  covering  them  with  varnish  ;  but 
this  is  a  bad  method,  even  when  designed  merely 
for  temporary  preservation  ;  it  blackens  the  shell, 
causes  an  unpleasant  odour,  and  attracts  insects 
who  destroy  the  muscles  of  the  joints,  and  the 
animal  falls  to  pieces.  If  you  wish  to  keep  a 
subject  for  a  few  days  previous  to  commencing  a 
preparation,  keep  him  alive.  Have  a  box  or 
basket  of  double  his  width ;  fill  it  half-full  with 
sea-weed,  moss,  or  other  marine  plants,  fresh 
from  the  water;  put  the  animal  within, and  cover 
him  with  the  same  ;  add  a  second  animal,  and 
another  layer  of  plants  ;  proceed  thus  till  you 
have  filled  two-thirds  of  your  box  ;  then  fill  up 
with  the  plants  and  press  the  whole  tightly 
down,  so  that  the  animals  without  being  crushed 
may  be  hindered  from  leaving  their  places  ;  pour 


52  PRACTICAL    NATURALIST. 

on  salt-water,  and  cover  the  box; — in  this  way 
you  may  keep  them  alive  at  least  fifteen  days. 

If  they  are  to  be  kept  longer  than  this  before 
preparation,  or  the  weather  be  too  hot,  you  must 
put  them  in  spirits  like  reptiles. 

Use  particular  care  in  your  choice  of  the  crus- 
taceous  tribe  ;  they  are  all  subject  to  the  loss  of 
their  claws,  and  although  these  are  quickly  re- 
produced, the  new  ones  are  smaller  than  the  first, 
which  inequality  hurts  their  looks.  You  will 
of  course  select  those  without  this  deformity ; 
still  if  it  happens  that  in  the  whole  number  be- 
fore you,  not  one  has  both  claws  alike,  they  are 
not  to  be  wholly  rejected,  as  there  exist  species 
which  never  exhibit  the  claws  perfectly  equal. 

All  seasons  are  not  equally  favourable  for  tak- 
ing them  ;  at  a  certain  time  of  the  year  they 
change  their  shell,  and  appear  in  new  and  more 
splendid  colours  ;  this  is  the  proper  period,  al- 
though you  must  be  careful  that  the  new  cover- 
ing has  grown  sufficiently  hard,  which  requires 
about  fifteen  days. 

The  entornostraceous  tribe  form  a  numerous 
division  of  the  crustaceous  order;  these  little  ani- 
mals are  found  in  springs  and  running  brooks  of 
clear  water,  and  in  ponds  under  the  stones  and 
sand  at  the  bottom ;  they  have  singular  shapes, 
but  their  semi-pellucid  bodies  are  so  delicate, 
that  in  the  space  of  half  an  hour  they  dry  up, 


PRACTICAL     NATURALIST.  53 

and  lose  their  shape,  colour  and  transparency. 
They  are  interesting  from  their  having  yet  re- 
ceived little  notice.  You  may  catch  them  with 
the  nets  used  for  insects  ;  keep  them  in  a  phial 
of  spirits  of  wine  of  fourteen  degrees,  otherwise 
they  will  quickly  spoil. 


OF    TAKING     INSECTS. 


We  shall  treat  this  subject  in  many  of  its  de- 
tails, as  it  furnishes  the  only  means  by  which  the 
amateur  can  complete  his  collection;  the  traders 
in  these  commodities  have  only  those  of  the 
largest  kind  ;  their  perfect  preservation  requir- 
ing minute  attention,  and  causing  a  great  ex- 
penditure of  time ;  add  to  which,  the  necessary 
knowledge  of  insects  is  difficult  to  acquire. 

Upon  commencing  the  business,  you  must  be 
furnished  with  several  implements  which  require 
a  pretty  exact  description.  These  are  —  a  box 
with  pins,  a  butterfly-net,  a  net  for  aquatic  in- 
sects, a  pair  of  net-nippers  for  insects  with  a 
sting,  and  a  large-mouthed  phial  of  brandy  or 
alcohol. 

The  box  is  of  thick  pasteboard  or  thin  deal ; 

the  length  and  breadth  are  indifferent,   but  the 

depth  should  be  2£  inches  within  ;  the  bottom 

is  covered   with  a  sheet  of  cork   two  or  three 

5* 


54  PRACTICAL    NATURALIST. 

lines*  in  thickness,  the  cover  of  the  box  is  lined 
with  the  same  ;  add  a  ball,  with  fifty  pins  or 
more.  If  you  cannot  buy  a  sheet  of  cork  to 
your  mind,  you  may  manufacture  it,  thus  :  — Se- 
lect a  piece  sufficiently  compact,  without  being 
too  hard  ;  let  it  be  light,  and  as  little  porous  as 
possible;  if  out  of  shape,  you  may  flatten  it  by 
heating  it  till  the  hand  can  hardly  bear  it,  when 
you  must  press  it  under  a  board  and  load  it  with  a 
weight  for  three  or  four  days  ;  with  a  fine  saw  you 
can  then  cut  it  into  sheets,  which  you  will  polish 
with  a  rasp  and  pumice-stone ;  glue  these  sheets 
of  cork  within  the  box,  and  a  smaller  piece  upon 
the  outside  to  pin  the  insect  upon  the  moment. 
he  is  taken,  that  you  may  have  both  hands  free 
to  handle  the  box. 

If  you  are  seeking  for  chrysalises,  live  cater- 
pillars and  bugs,  two  smaller  boxes  are  necessa- 
ry ;  a  common  pine-box  will  serve  for  the  first ; 
the  caterpillars  and  bugs  require  one  of  a  particu- 
lar construction: — make  this  of  very  thin  wood, 
and  divide  it  into  small  compartments ;  each 
caterpillar,  or  at  least  each  species,  should  have 
its  separate  place, — some  are  enemies  to  others, 
and  will  attack  and  destroy  them ;  in  the  cover 
over  each  apartment,  make  a  hole  as  big  as  a 
cent ;  cover  this  with  a  thin  but  strong  cloth, 

*  The  fine  i<?  the  twelfth  part  of  an  inch. 


PRACTICAL     NATURALIST.  55 

which  will  admit  the  air  ;  bugs  are  powerful 
enough  sometimes  to  eat  through  the  cloth :  a 
very  fine  wire  net  would  be  an  advantageous 
substitute. 

The  box  first  mentioned,  destined  for  the  keep- 
ing of  dead  subjects,  should  have  fastened  in  one 
corner  a  small  piece  of  camphor  covered  with  a 
cloth  ;  this  will  suffice  to  keep  off  devouring 
vermin.  Others  recommend 'for  the  same  pur- 
pose, a  sprinkling  of  the  essence  of  wild  thyme. 

The  two  other  boxes  should  contain  no  odor- 
ous substance,  nor  even  be  kept  near  the  first; 
caterpillars  are  extremely  delicate,  and  killed  by 
the  slightest  exhalation. 

Some  choice  is  necessary  in  the  selection  of 
pins ;  their  size  should  be  proportioned  to  the 
size  and  strength  of  the  insect  that  is  to  be  stuck 
upon  the  cork.  When  you  are  catching  them, 
use  a  small  rather  than  a  large  pin;  as  when  you 
take  away  the  pin  to  fix  him  finally  in  your  col- 
lection, the  new  pin  should  quite  fill  up  the  hole 
made  by  the  first,  and  be  firmly  attached  to  the 
animal.* 

The  nippers  are  indispensable,  both  for  catch- 
ing those  with  stings  and  placing  them  upon  the 
cork. 

*  Pins  made  expressly  for  this  purpose,  are  sold  at  th« 
Maison  dVY  upon  the  Q,uai  St.  Michel  at  Paris. 


56  PRACTICAL     NATURALIST. 

The  butterfly-net  is  made  thus: — Take  an 
iron  wire  stiff  enough  to  handle,  bend  it  into  a 
circle  of  9  or  10  inches  diameter  and  weld  the 
ends  together,  leaving  a  portion  sufficient  to 
fasten  into  a  socket  of  iron  or  copper,  which  you 
may  screw,  when  wanted,  upon  a  handle  as  long 
as  a  walking-stick  ;  attach  to  this  hoop  a  net  of 
gauze  \vith  the  stiffening  removed,  or  other  fine 
net-work,  the  net  -may  be  a  foot  or  18  inches 
deep.  With  this  you  may  catch  butterflies  and 
many  other  insects  ;  move  it  from  left  to  right 
horizontally  till  it  bellies  or  swells  full;  then  cast 
it  over  the  insect,  and  immediately  bring  the  hoop 
perpendicular,  —  this  movement  shuts  him  com- 
pletely in. 

The  net  for  aquatic  insects  is  much  like  the 
former,  and  by  means  of  the  socket  screws  upon 
the  same  handle  ;  the  hoop  must  be  stronger,  and 
instead  of  being  circular  should  be  triangular;  the 
net  of  strong  and  transparent  gauze,  the  longer 
the  better ;  with  this  you  may  fish  in  shallow 
ponds,  ditches  and  small  streams  ;  stagnant  wa- 
ters exposed  to  the  sun,  will  afford  the  most  suc- 
cessful fishing. 

Both  these  nets  are  also  employed  advantage- 
ously in  another  method,  called  by  the  French 
faucher  (mowing)  ;  in  meadows  and  other  places 
overgrown  with  thick  grass,  drag  the  net  along 


PRACTICAL     NATURALIST.  57 

close  to  the  ground,  shaking  into  it  such  insects 
as  come  in  the  way. 

Spread  a  table-cloth  or  large  sheet  under  a 
bush  or  tree,  and  beat  the  branches  ;  the  insects 
will  fall  into  the  cloth.  You  may  supply  the 
place  of  the  cloth  by  an  umbrella,  which  you 
hold  inverted  with  the  left  hand  while  you  strike 
the  branches  with  the  right.  This  was  the 
method  of  the  naturalist  Bose. 

The  net-nippers  are  like  a  pair  of  scissors  or 
curling-tongs,  the  jaws  making  a  sort  of  cage  of 
wire  ;  when  an  insect  with  a  sting  has  alighted 
upon  a  flower,  nip  him  flower  and  all  within  it,— - 
you  may  then  stick  a  pin  through  him  without 
danger. 

Into  the  phial  above-mentioned  put  the  cole- 
opterous* tribes,  and  those  insects  whose  dull 
colours  are  in  no  danger  of  spoiling. 

Butterflies  are  of  two  sorts,  those  of  the  day 
and  those  of  the  night  :  the  former  appear  only 
during  the  daytime,  and  should  be  sought,  only 
in  the  hottest  hours.  They  may  be  caught 
upon  the  flowers  on  the  skirts  of  forests,  in 
meadows  and  pastures  among  clover  —  especially 
during  the  flowery  season,  in  gardens,  and  upon 
such  plants  or  trunks  of  trees  as  have  nour- 
ished the  caterpillars  which  produced  them. 

*  Those  insects  which  have  wings  with  hard  cases;  —  a  bee- 
tle is  coleopterous. 


58  PRACTICAL     NATURALIST. 

The  mars  changeant  is  found  only  upon  poplar- 
trees;  many  other  kinds  inhabit  only  those  places 
near  which  they  were  produced. 

Having  caught  a  butterfly  in  your  net,  kill  him 
immediately,  lest  he  beat  his  colours  off  or  his 
wings  to  piecas  in  attempting  to  escape, —  for  it 
is  well  known  that  his  gaudy  tints  consist  in  a 
fine  dust,  which  the  slightest  touch  will  rub  off; 
— to  effect  this,  seize  the  net  in  the  middle  with 
the  left  hand,  and  with  the  right  gently  force  him 
downward  ;  then  seize  and  pinch  him  with  the 
thumb  and  fore-finger  by  the  neck,  under  the 
wings,  bringing  them  together  over  his  back  ;  as 
soon  as  he  is  still,  stick  him  through  the  neck 
with  a  pin  and  fasten  him  upon  the  cork  of  your 
box. 

Some  sorts  are  very  tenacious  of  life,  and  are 
not  to  be  killed  by  this  method  ;  such  you  must 
stick  through  the  breast,  below  the  insertion  of 
the  wings,  otherwise  they  cannot  be  kept  still. 
The  small  and  slender  sorts  dry  very  quick  ;  and 
if  they  are  kept  too  long  in  the  box,  the  wings 
cannot  be  placed  in  a  proper  attitude  unless  care 
has  been  taken  to  fix  them  in  this  manner  at 
first. 

Night-butterflies  come  abroad  only  after  dark, 
and  would  be  difficult  to  take  by  the  method 
above  specified.  Look  for  them  in  shady  and 
dark  places,  upon  the  bark  of  old  trees,  walls 


PRACTICAL     NATURALIST.  59 

and  rocks  ;  they  are  in  a  state  of  perfect  torpid- 
ity, and  you  may  take  them  by  the  mere  thrust 
of  a  pin  ;  this  manoeuvre  however  demands  a 
degree  of  dexterity,  for  if  you  miss  your  thrust 
the  pin  slips  by  him  and  he  is  off;  when  you  are 
not  confident  of  sticking  him,  you  had  better  first 
cover  him  with  the  net. 

The  greater  part  of  the  moth  species  keep 
all  day  under  the  leaves,  among  thick  bushes 
and  hedges,  invisible  to  the  eye  ;  you  must  beat 
the  bushes  for  these  with  a  stick,  and  ply  your 
net.  When  the  air  is  calm  and  the  night  dark, 
place  a  light  in  a  low,  bare  place,  and  you  will 
quickly  have  a  swarm  of  them  around  it. 

Most  caterpillars  lurk  among  the  lowest  herb- 
age in  the  night,  begin  to  ascend  early  in  the 
morning,  and  about  noon  are  found  feeding  on  the 
tops  of  their  respective  plants  ;  they  descend 
gradually  as  the  sun  declines,  and  at  the  close 
of  the  evening  are  again  concealed  in  the  low 
herbage; — night-feeders  ascend  in  the  evening, 
and  descend  as  morning  approaches. 

In  collecting  insects,  you  should  pay  a  proper 
attention  to  the  weather.  If  it  be  pleasant,  and 
the  sun  emits  much  warmth,  insects  are  very 
brisk ;  but  in  a  cold  or  windy  day,  it  will  be  a 
fruitless  toil  to  attempt  collecting  them  ;  as  all 
insects  at  such  times  shelter  within  the  herbage, 
and  instead  of  flying  upward  as  usual  when  dis- 


60  PRACTICAL     NATURALIST. 

turbed,  they  dart  into  the  thickest  of  the  under- 
wood,—  or  if  once  they  rise  above  the  bushes, 
they  are  impetuously  hurled  by  the  wind  far 
beyond  the  reach  of  the  fowling-net. 

For  the  smaller  kinds  of  lepidopterous  insects, 
the  best  time  is  before  sunrise  or  after  sunset, 
though  many  may  be  taken  by  beating  the  bushes 
in  the  daytime.  The  best  time  to  catch  moths 
on  the  wing  is  during  the  night,  especially  an 
hour  or  two  after  sunset. 

At  daybreak  many  insects  are  on  the  wing ; 
and  most  kinds  are  observed  in  hot  weather  to 
come  forth  after -rain  to  enjoy  the  humidity  of 
the  air,  which  is  then  damp  but  warm.  This  is 
the  best  time  for  collecting,  as  their  wings  are 
less  liable  to  stiffen  before  they  can  be  set. 

The  males  of  some  species  of  the  moth  tribe, 
by  a  remarkable  faculty,  are  able  to  discover  the 
females  at  a  great  distance  and  in  the  most  se- 
cret situations.  The  male  insects  may  be  dis- 
covered by  this  means: — enclose  the  living  fe- 
male in  a  breeding-box,  and  place  it  near  the 
usual  haunt  of  the  species  ;  the  males  will  soon 
be  seen  fluttering  round  the  box,  and  endeavour- 
ing to  gain  admittance.  This  experiment  is  ge- 
nerally practised  with  success  on  the  fox  and 
egger  moths. 

Every  species  has  a  distinct  time  for  its  appear- 
ance, and  this  punctuality  is  scarcely  forwarded  or 


PRACTICAL     NATURALIST.  61 

retarded  a  few  days,  except  by  the  unusual  mild- 
ness or  inclemency  of  the  season ;  if  you  discover 
a  brood  of  insects  at  a  certain  time  of  the  year, 
precisely  or  nearly  at  the  same  period  of  the  year 
following,  you  will  find  a  brood  of  the  same  spe- 
cies. 

Certain  spots  of  ground  and  particular  situa- 
tions should  always  be  noticed ;  these  are  the 
haunts  of  particular  sorts  ;  some  kinds  are  con- 
fined to  one  certain  spot,  and  are  not  to  be  found 
in  any  other  part  of  the  same  wood  or  field;  — 
thus  having  once  discovered  the  haunt  of  an  in- 
sect, you  may  be  able  every  season  to  take  some 
of  that  species.  Some  kinds  have  two  or  more 
broods  every  summer. 


OF    TAKING     SHELL-FISH, 

The  greater  number  of  these  are  found  in  the 
water,  either  fresh  or  salt,  others  dwell  upon 
land  ;  they  form  therefore  three  classes,  river, 
sea,  and  land  shell-fish. 

The  first  inhabit  rivers,  brooks,  ponds  and 
lakes ;  they  float  upon  the  surface,  or  lie  upon 
the  gravel  and  sand  at  the  bottom  ;  some  adhere 
to  the  rushes,  roots  and  stones  on  the  edge  of  the 
water.  You  may  take  them  with  the  net  for 
6 


62  PRACTICAL    NATURALIST. 

aquatic  insects  above  described,  or  seek  them  in 
the  beds  of  dried  up  marshes. 

The  sea  species  are  more  difficult  to  procure, 
their  habitations  being  the  rocks  and  sand  under 
water.  Look  for  them  when  the  tide  is  out,  in 
places  where  the  sand  is  worn  into  furrows  and 
holes  ;  wherever  you  see  water  spirting  out,  or 
air-bubbles  rising,  you  may  be  sure  of  finding 
more  or  less  by  digging  a  little  with  a  spade  or 
hoe.  Sometimes  the  animal  lies  buried  a  foot 
and  a  half,  or  two  feet  deep.  Some  dig  into 
wood,  stone,  and  the  hardest  substances,  which 
must  be  broken  to  pieces  to  get  at  them. 

To  fish  for  these  animals,  make  a  net  like  that 
for  aquatic  insects,  but  larger,  and  with  the  bag 
of  twine  instead  of  cloth  ;  the  mouth  of  the  net 
at  the  outer  side  of  the  triangle,  must  be  set  with 
teeth  like  a  rake  :  you  draw  this  along  the  bot- 
tom of  the  sea,  the  teeth  loosen  the  shell-fish, 
and  they  pass  into  the  net ;  this  may  be  done  in 
a  boat,  two  persons  rowing  while  a  third  manages 
the  net.  Where  the  water  is  too  deep  for  this, 
use  grappling  irons  of  the  common  sort ;  these 
should  be  set  upon  a  triangle  of  iron,  with  the 
edges  sharp  and  sloping. 

Upon  sea  voyages,  the  best  thing  you  can  do 
is  to  follow  the  advice  of  M.  Bosc,  and  examine 
carefully  the  heaps  of  seaweed  which  have  been 
torn  up  from  the  bottom  of  the  ocean,  and  drift 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  63 

before  the  wind  ;  these  often  furnish  us  with 
shell-fish  that  dwell  no  where  but  in  the  deepest 
parts  of  the  sea.  The  able  naturalist  just  men- 
tioned, had  a  custom  of  opening  all  the  fish  and 
birds  which  were  taken  during  the  voyage, — a 
species  of  research  often  attended  with  success. 

The  shelly  tribes  of  the  land  are  most  gener- 
ally found  in  damp  and  shady  places,  under  moss 
and  thick  bushes,  about  the  bark  of  trees,  near 
the  edge  of  the  water,  or  under  stones.  The 
best  time  for  them  is  the  spring,  after  a  warm 
and  soft  shower.  Take  with  you  a  small  leather 
bag  for  the  larger  kind,  and  a  large-mouthed  bot- 
tle for  those  of  a  more  delicate  and  fragile  con- 
struction. 

In  all  cases  take  none  but  the  live  ones  ;  the 
shells  found  empty,  and  which  the  traders  in 
these  articles  call  dead,  must  be  rejected  by  the 
naturalist, — for  however  brilliant  their  appear- 
ance., you  cannot  be  certain  they  possess  their 
true  colours  ;  besides  this,  they  will  be  often 
found  bruised,  and  thereby  deprived  of  some  of 
their  distinctive  .marks,  especially  about  the  neck ; 
such  shells  have  no  value. 

Molluscous  animals  without  shells,  and  worms, 
are  found  wherever  shell-fish  inhabit.  Intestinal 
worms  are  to  be  sought  for  in  the  viscera  of  ani- 
mals ;  in  the  liver,  the  intestines,  the  lungs,  brain, 
&c.  This  branch  of  natural  history  has  been  little 


64  PRACTICAL    NATURALIST. 

cultivated,  and  offers  a  field  for  many  useful  dis- 
coveries, particularly  in  relation  to  medicine. — 
Keep  these  in  spirits  of  wine. 

OF     TAKING     ZOOPHYTES.* 

These  oddly-shaped  animals  resemble  some- 
times a  vegetable,  a  flower,  a  mushroom,  a  star, 
a  chestnut  in  the  shell,  &c.  They  grow  gener- 
ally in  the  sea, — very  seldom  in  fresh  water. 
Those  which  are  soft  should  be  kept  in  spirits  of 
wine  ;  some  are  hard  enough  to  dry  and  keep  in 
a  box.  Those  of  a  flat  shape  should  be  put  im- 
mediately between  two  sheets  of  paper  and  rolled 
up;  without  this  precaution,  they  will  crisp  in  dry- 
ing and  lose  their  natural  shape,  which  is  that  of 
a  palm  branch  or  feather. 

CORALS,  &tc. 

Some  kinds  of  corallines,  &c,  must  be  washed 
first  in  spirits  of  wine,  to  kill  the  insects  which 
are  concealed  in  the  hollows, —  then  in  common 
water.  White  corallines,  when  dirty  or  changed 

*  Zoophytes  are  those  anomalous  productions  which  partake 
both  of  animal  and  vegetable  organization.  —  The  five-finger, 
which  grows  upon  our  wharves  and  on  the  rocks  of  the  sea- 
eoast,  is  a  zoophyte. 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  6.r; 

black,  may  be  cleansed  by  a  mixture  of  soap- 
suds and  pearlash,  rubbing  them  with  a  soft 
brush  ;  the  finest  degree  of  whiteness  may  be 
regained  by  this  process.  Fumigations  of  sul- 
phur will  also  whiten  coral  that  has  been  turned 
black. 


POLYPES. 

You  may  often  observe  at  the  bottoms  of  shal- 
low pools,  or  on  the  plants  which  grow  in  or  re- 
cline on  the  surface  of  water  nearly  stagnant,  a 
number  of  small  transparent  lumps,  about  the 
size  of  a  pea,  and  flattened  on  one  side  ;  these 
are  polypes  in  an  inactive  state ;  they  are  gener- 
rally  fixed  by  one  end  to  some  solid  substance — 
at  the  other  end  is  an  opening  which  is  the  mouth 
of  the  creature,  and  the  arms  shoot  forth  round 
it  in  the  form  of  rays.  They  are  generally  found 
in  waters  that  move  gently;  neither  rapid  streams, 
or  pools  utterly  stagnant,  ever  abound  with  them: 
they  adhere  to  aquatic  plants,  rotten  wood,  stones, 
&c.  They  are  seldom  met  with  in  winter ;  but 
in  May  they  begin  to  appear,  and  are  found  in 
ditches  all  the  summer. 

When  you  search  for  polypes,  it  will  be  best 
to  take  up  a  quantity  of  the  pieces  of  wood,  &c, 
that  are  usually  found  in  ditches  ;  put  them  into 
6* 


66  PRACTICAL     NATURALIST. 

a  glass  of  water,  and  let  it  stand  for  a  while  with- 
out being  moved  ;  and  if  there  are  any  polypes 
adhering  to  these  substances,  you  will  perceive 
them  stretching  out  their  arms  in  search  for  their 
prey. 

These  little  animals  may  be  fed  upon  worms, 
water-fleas,  insects,  the  larvae  of  gnats,  and  even 
butchers'  meat,  if  cut  small  enough.  To  preserve 
them  in  health,  it  will  be  proper  to  change  the 
water  in  which  they  are  kept, very  frequently,  and 
particularly  after  they  have  done  eating;  the  water 
must  be  poured  off,  the  polypes  taken  out,  and 
the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  glass  washed  free 
frogn  any  slimy  sediment.  In  taking  them  out, 
first  loosen  their  tails  from  the  glass,  and  take 
them  up  separately  with  a  quill  cut  in  the  shape 
of  a  scoop. 

The  power  of  reproduction  in  these  creatures 
is  most  surprising.  If  you  cut  one  of  them  trans- 
versely or  longitudinally,  in  a  little  time  each 
part  will  become  a  perfect  individual ;  even  a 
small  portion  of  the  skin  will  produce  a  new 
creature. 

If  you  slit  a  polypus  from  the  head  to  the 
middle  of  the  body,  an  animal  will  be  formed 
with  two  heads;  and  he  will  eat  with  both  at  the 
same  time.  If  you  slit  him  into  six  or  seven 
parts,  he  becomes  a  hydra  with  as  many  heads ; 
divide  these,  and  he  will  have  twelve  or  four- 


PRACTICAL     NATURALIST.  67 

teen ;  if  these  be  severed  from  the  trunk,  as 
many  new  ones  will  spring  up  in  their  place,' — 
and  the  heads  thus  deprived  of  their  body  will 
become  new  polypes. 


OF  COLLECTING  SEEDS  AND  PLANTS. 

The  collection  of  a  great  number  of  rare  plants, 
ought  not  to  be  considered  as  an  object  of  mere 
luxury  or  curiosity.  It  is  useful  to  the  progress 
of  science.  We  must  not  forget  that  several 
foreign  plants,  which  are  now  spread  in  many 
parts,  were  first  cultivated  in  botanical  gardens. 

Every  one  knows,  that  the  coffee  of  America, 
which  is  now  so  great  an  article  of  commerce, 
proceeded  from  a  plant  raised  in  the  greenhouses 
of  Europe. 

Seeds.  To  be  certain  of  the  maturity  of  seeds, 
you  must  gather  them  when  they  easily  separate 
from  the  plant.  In  many  instances  you  may  take 
the  branch  which  bears  them,  that  those  which 
are  not  perfectly  ripe  may  become  so.  The 
bags  containing  the  grains,  well  dried,  ought  to 
be  put  into  a  case  covered  with  pitch, — to  keep 
them  from  the  damp,  insects  and  mice. 

The  oily  grains  lose  their  germinating  faculty 
soonest.  The  seeds  of  tea,  coffee,  and  the  glands 
of  most  of  the  oaks  are  of  this  kind.  When  you 


68  PRACTICAL     NATURALIST. 

collect  these  in  foreign  countries,  they  should  be 
put  into  sandy  earth: — strew  a  depth  of  two 
inches  of  it  at  the  bottom  of  a  box,  and  range  the 
grains  in  the  earth  at  distances  equal  to  their  size  ; 
cover  them  with  about  an  inch  of  earth,  add  a 
fresh  layer  of  seeds,  and  proceed  in  this  way  till 
within  a  foot  of  the  top  of  the  box  ;  take  care 
that  the  box  be  quite  full  of  sand,  that  nothing 
may  derange  the  seeds  ;  cover  the  box,  but  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  air  may  penetrate  ;  make 
an  opening  at  the  to^,  which  cover  with  a  trellis 
of  brass  wire,  to  admit  the  air,  but  not  the  mice 
or  other  animals. 

The  grains  germinate  during  the  passage,  and 
on  arrival  they  should  be  immediately  put  into  a 
proper  soil. 

M.  de  Candolle  recommends  to  pack  all  seeds 
collected  in  a  moist  country  or  season,  in  char- 
coal. Honey  is  also  said  to  be  a  good  preserva- 
tive. 

According  to  the  advice  of  Dr  Lettsom,  and 
other  naturalists,  the  following  directions  will  be 
found  efficient. 

Roll  each  seed  in  a  coat  of  beeswax,  half  an 
inch  thick  ;"put  a  number  of  these  into  a  box, 
and  fill  it  up  with  melted  wax ;  rub  the  outside  of 
the  box  with  Smith's  liquid  (hereafter  described), 
to  keep  off  the  insects,  and  place  it  during  the 
voyage  in  a  cool,  airy  place.  In  this  manner, 


PRACTICAL     NATURALIST.  69 

tea-seeds,  the  stones  of  mangoes,  and  all  hard 
nuts  and  leguminous  seeds  in  general,  may  be 
prepared. 

Or  they  may  be  inclosed  in  paper  or  cotton, 
which  has  been  first  steeped  in  melted  wax ;  and 
then  placed  in  layers  in  a  box,  which  is  to  be 
filled  with  melted  wax  as  before.  Pulpy  seeds, 
as  those  of  strawberries,  mulberries,  arbutuses, 
&c,  may  be  squeezed  together  and  dried,  and 
then  put  into  the  cerate  paper  or  cotton  as 
above. 

Small  seeds,  well  dried,  may  be  mixed  with 
dry  sand,  put  into  the  cerate  paper  or  cotton,  and 
packed  in  glass  bottles,  well  corked  and  covered 
with  bladder  or  leather.  These  bottles  may  be 
put  into  a  keg  or  box  filled  with  the  following 
mixture: — 4  parts  of  common  sa.lt,  2  of  salt- 
petre, and  1  of  sal  ammoniac ;  this  will  keep 
the  seeds  cool,  and  preserve  their  vegetative 
power. 

Seeds  and  nuts  in  their  pods  may  be  inclosed 
in  linen  or  writing-paper,  and  put  into  canisters, 
jars,  or  bottles  ;  the  interstices  between  the  par- 
cels should  be  filled  with  whole  rice,  millet, 
wheat-bran,  or  indian-meal  well  dried.  To  keep 
off  insects,  put  in  at  the  top  of  each  canister  a 
little  camphor,  sulphur,  or  tobacco,  and  cover  it 
close. 

Seeds  well  dried  may  be  put  into  a  box,  not 


70  PRACTICAL    NATURALIST. 

made  too  tight,  upon  alternate  layers  of  moss, — 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  admit  the  seeds  to  vege- 
tate or  shoot  their  small  tendrils  into  the  moss. 
In  the  voyage,  hang  the  box  from  the  roof  of  the 
cabin.  On  arrival,  put  the  seeds  into  a  pot  of 
mould,  with  a  little  of  the  moss  about  them, 

In  whatever  manner  seeds  have  been  preserv- 
ed, it  should  be  a  constant  precaution  to  sow 
them  as  soon  as  they  have  been  exposed  to  the 
air  ;  otherwise  they  probably  will  never  vege- 
tate. 

Plants.  When  you  are  about  to  undertake  a 
botanical  excursion  of  a  few  days,  provide  a  tin 
box  18  inches  long  by  6  wide;  as  also  a  bill- 
hook, fitted  to  screw  to  the  end  of  a  cane.  If 
you  are  desirous  to  collect  cryptogamous*  plants, 
particularly  of  the  mushroom  tribe,  which  are 
moist  and  fragile,  and  dry  quickly,  being  thereby 
subject  to  the  speedy  loss  of  their  colour  and 
shape  —  have  a  large-mouthed  bottle  of  spirit  to 
hold  them  ;  fruits  with  a  soft  pulp  are  to  be  kept 
by  the  same  means. 

When  you  gather  a  plant,  see  that  it  possesses, 
as  far  as  possible,  all  its  generic  and  specific  char- 
acters; that  is  to  say,  the  flower  with  all  its  organs, 
stamen,  pistil,  ovary,  calix,  petals,  &c, —  the  fruit, 
leaves,  branches,  stalk  and  root,  in  whole  or  in 

*  Those  which  have  the  stamen  and  pistils  obscure, —  as 
ferns,  lichens,  seaweeds  and  mushrooms. 


PRACTICAL  NATURALIST.  71 

part.  If  the  whole  plant  be  too  large  for  the 
box,  select  specimens  of  parts,  but  always  those 
above  enumerated. 

All  seasons  of  the  year  are  favourable  for  this 
business  ;  in  the  spring,  however,  you  will  find 
the  greatest  number  of  the  phanerogamous*  spe- 
cies. The  most  interesting  among  the  cryptoga- 
mous  kind,  abound  in  autumn  and  throughout  the 
winter.  A  plant  should  not  be  gathered  before 
the  sun  has  wholly  dried  up  the  dew  upon  the 
flower  and  stalk.  Every  plant  should  as  soon  as 
plucked,  be  deposited  in  the  box,  with  the  pre- 
caution not  to  bruise  the  flower  or  stalk.  Put 
the  roots  in  along  writh  them,  and  if  you  are  to 
be  some  days  upon  the  excursion,  wrap  them  in 
a  little  wet  moss  ;  by  this  precaution,  and  by 
keeping  the  box  open  as  little  as  possible,  you 
may  preserve  the  flowers  for  a  fortnight.  Sea 
weeds  require  to  be  washed  in  fresh  water,  and 
then  dried  between  sheets  of  paper. 

Wood.  It  is  also  desirable  to  collect  speci- 
mens of  useful  woods.  These  specimens  ought 
to  be  about  ten  inches  long,  and  if  possible,  the 
width  of  the  tree.  It  would  be  well  to  procure 
a  longitudinal  and  transversal  cut  of  the  tree. 
Gather  a  branch  of  the  tree  for  the  herbarium, 
and  put  a  number  on  the  wood  corresponding  to 

*  The  reverse  of  the  cryptogamous  in  regard  to  the  organ* 
above  mentioned. 


72  PRACTICAL    NATURALIST? 

the  branch  in  the  herbarium  ;  this  is  very  essen- 
tial, for  botanists  are  still  ignorant  to  what  trees 
several  of  the  woods  belong,  which  are  articles 
of  commerce. 


OF    COLLECTING    MINERALS. 

Since  we  have  abandoned  systems,  to  confine 
ourselves  to  the  observation  of  facts,  and  to 
compare  these  observations, —  since  we  have  re- 
nounced the  attempts  to  guess  the  origin  of  things, 
in  order  to  ascertain  their  actual  state, — geology, 
which  formerly  belonged  to  the  domain  of  the 
imagination,  has  followed  the  course  of  the  posi- 
tive sciences.  This  regular  method  has  not  only 
extended  our  knowledge  of  the  construction  of 
the  earth,  but  has  produced  results  useful  to  the 
arts. 

It  is  easy  for  those  who  visit  distant  countries, 
to  procure  important  notices,  and  send  home  pro- 
ductions, the  examination  of  which  can  furnish 
us  with  ideas  of  the  nature  of  the  soil  in  different 
climes,  and  consequently  the  general  disposition  of 
the  minerals  which  cover  the  surface  of  the  globe. 
On  all  coasts  and  at  all  islands  where  a  vessel 
harbours,  those  who  go  on  shore  can  without 
much  difficulty  procure  objects,  which,  not  pos- 
sessing any  value  in  themselves,  may  become 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  73 

instructive    and  interesting  from  the    notes    by 
which  they  are  accompanied. 

Collect  first,  on  the  borders  of  rocky  torrents, 
fragments  which  indicate  the  nature  of  the  rocks 
over  which  they  pass.  Choose  the  largest ;  note 
their  size,  and  break  some  of  the  fragments. 
Take  also  some  of  the  smallest,  exemplifying 
the  variety  of  aspect.  The  further  these  frag- 
ments are  brought  by  the  stream,  the  smaller 
they  become. 

Wherever  a  rock  rises,  either  in  the  middle  of 
a  water  or  country,  travellers  must  observe  if 
this  rock  be  all  of  the  same  substance,  whether 
homogeneous  or  composite,  or  if  it  be  formed  of 
different  layers.  In  the  first  case,  detach  a  por- 
tion. In  the  second,  observe  the  relative  posi- 
tion of  the  strata,  their  inclination  and  thickness; 
take  a  specimen  of  each,  putting  the  same  mark 
on  all  the  specimens  which  come  from  the  same 
mountain,  and  a  particular  number  on  each  of 
them,  to  indicate  the  order  of  their  superposition, 
or  their  reciprocal  situation.  If  you  can  join  a 
sketch  to  the  simple  mention  of  these  particu- 
lars, indicating  the  form  of  the  mountain,  and  the 
thickness  and  inclination  of  the  layers,  the  speci- 
mens will  be  still  more  valuable.  If  the  rock  be 
an  isolated  peak,  it  will  be  well  to  examine  and 
draw  two  faces,  to  confirm  the  inclination  of  the 
strata. 

7 


74  PRACTICAL     NATURALIST. 

It  will  be  useful  to  collect  the  sand  of  rivers, 
especially  those  which  carry  metallic  spangles 
with  them  ;  the  sand  must  be  taken  as  far  from 
the  mouths  as  possible. 

In  some  countries  isolated  masses  are  found, 
to  which  the  people  ascribe  an  extraordinary  ori- 
gin; take  fragments  of  these;  some  may  be  aero- 
lites (meteoric  stones), — others  may  have  been 
transported  by  the  revolutions  of  the  globe. 

In  gathering  the  fragments  of  rocks,  mines, 
volcanic  productions,  fossil  or  organized  bodies, 
the  most  essential  thing  is  to  notice  their  bear- 
ing,— that  is,  the  nature  of  the  soil  where  they 
are  found,  and  their  position  relative  to  the  mine- 
rals which  environ  them. 

Basaltic  layers  merit  a  particular  attention, 
either  in  themselves,  or  with  respect  to  the  soils 
which  support  or  cover  them ;  remark  if  they 
are  divided  into  irregular  masses,  in  tables,  or 
prisms,  and  what  is  their  disposition  ;  observe  if 
they  contain  the  remains  of  organized  bodies, 
and  collect  specimens  of  the  different  states,  as 
well  as  of  the  substance  upon  which  the  basalt 
reposes  ;  ascertain  particularly  if  there  be  no  in- 
terposition of  scorified  matter,  or  of  those  beds 
of  an  earthy  aspect,  to  which  the  Germans  give 
the  name  of  wakJce,  and  which  are  supposed  not 
to  be  volcanic. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  take  pieces  of  a  large 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  75 

size  ;  specimens  of  two  and  a  half  or  three  inches 
square,  and  an  inch  and  a  half  thick,  are  suffi- 
cient. Take  large  masses  only  when  they  con- 
tain a  fossil  animal. 

Minerals  are  found  either  in  regular  and  geo- 
metrical forms,  which  bear  the  name  of  crystals, 
or  in  masses  more  or  less  irregular.  Amongst 
the  crystals  there  are  some  so  situated,  that  we 
can  without  injury  separate  them  from  their 
support,  or  the  substance  which  surrounds  them. 
Others  compose  groups  projecting  beyond  their 
support,  and  others  appear  buried  in  cavities  in 
the  interior.  We  must  procure  as  frequently  as 
possible,  the  specimens  in  these  three  states. 
When  crystals  are  inserted  within  the  surround- 
ing substance,  detach  parts  of  this  substance 
with  them, — at  least  from  three  to  four  inches 
large  every  way,  so  that  we  may  observe  the  dif- 
ferent minerals  which  accompany  the  crystals. 
Detach  also  portions  of  the  masses  composed  of 
needles  or  fibres,  of  the  granulous  or  compact, 
taking  care  to  choose  them  in  a  state  of  fresh- 
ness, and  free  from  alteration,  which  is  most  obvi- 
ous in  those  situated  near  the  surface. 

In  choosing  specimens  from  mines,  be  careful 
to  leave  round  the  principal  metal,  either  portions 
of  the  other  metals  which  are  associated  with  it, 
or  of  the  stony  substances  which  often  accom- 
pany it,  especially  those  which  are  crystallized. 


76  PRACTICAL    NATURALIST. 

If  you  find  earths  which  contain  the  remains 
of  organized  beings, — such  as  the  bones  of  ani- 
mals, shells,  impressions  of  fish  and  vegetables, — 
collect  with  care  specimens  of  these  different 
bodies,  having  them  enveloped  in  a  portion  of 
the  eaith  or  stone  in  which  they  were  fixed. 

When  you  find  any  traces  of  volcanic  origin, 
procure  specimens  of  the  different  substances 
thrown  up  by  explosion, — some  of  which  are  in 
a  state  of  stone,  like  basalt ;  others  similar  to 
glass,  like  obsidian;  others  in  a  state  of  scoriae. 
For  those  that  are  in  prisms,  care  should  be  taken 
to  note  their  forms,  and  the  extent  they  occupy 
in  the  soil. 

A  ticket  should  be  fixed  to  each  specimen, 
indicating  the  name  of  the  country  where  it  was 
found,  the  spot  from  which  it  was  taken,  and  as 
nearly  as  possible,  the  nature  and  general  aspect 
of  the  soil,  and  its  elevation  above  the  level  of 
the  sea. 

Wherever  warm  or  mineral  waters  are  found, 
care  should  be  taken  to  fill  phials  with  them, 
which  should  be  well  corked  and  luted. 

Generally  in  selecting  minerals,  give  the  pre- 
ference to  such  specimens  as  are  attached  to  the 
rock  in  which  they  are  found  ;  other  pieces  are 
likely  to  be  damaged  by  attrition,  or  by  the  sim- 
ple contact  of  the  air.  For  the  same  reason  you 
will  prefer  those  portions  imbedded  a  certain 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  77 

depth,  to  those  at  the  surface.  In  packing  up, 
be  particularly  careful  of  the  broken  part,  as  that 
determines  the  character  which  relates  to  the 
classification  of  the  mineral. 


OF    PACKING    AND    TRANSPORTING    OBJECTS    OF 
NATURAL    HISTORY. 

A  naturalist  in  a  distant  country,  having  a  col- 
lection of  subjects  to  send  home,  would  be  de- 
sirous to  know  a  safe  method  of  packing,  to  pre- 
serve them  from  the  accidents  of  the  transporta- 
tion. We  recommend  the  following. 

1.  Birds.  The  first  thing  is  to  skin  and  stuff 
them  ;  this  we  shall  enlarge  upon  hereafter,  in 
the  chapter  on  taxidermy.  Suppose  the  skin 
taken  off  and  prepared  as  there  directed,  stuff 
the  body  with  tow,  cotton,  moss,  or  even  straw 
and  hay  if  a  very  large  subject ;  indeed  you  may 
apply  to  this  purpose  any  soft  substance  easily 
obtained,  provided  it  be  not  of  an  animal  nature 
— for  wool,  hair,  and  silk  will  attract  destructive 
insects.  Before  stuffing,  place  the  wings  in  a 
proper  position,  tying  them  as  we  have  before 
directed.  All  the  difficulty  in  arranging  the  skin, 
lies  in  the  precaution  not  to  stretch  the  neck  too 
much ;  in  such  a  case,  it  is  difficult  to  bring  the 
skin  within  its  ordinary  dimensions,  and  the  head 
7* 


78  PRACTICAL    NATURALIST. 

will  sit  badly.  Put  inside  the  notes  you  have 
taken  respecting  the  subject,  as  directed  on  a 
former  occasion.  Give  him  the  right  proportions 
as  to  length  and  breadth  in  stuffing.  If  the  bird 
be  large,  sew  up  the  skin  ;  but  if  small,  you  need 
only  bring  the  edges  together. 

If  you  have  some  exceedingly  large,  you  may 
to  save  room,  stow  one  within  another,  packing 
all  snugly  with  tow  or  other  soft  matter. 

Small  birds,  as  those  of  the  size  of  a  magpie 
or  swallow,  should  be  put  in  paper  cones,  the 
head  first, — taking  care  that  the  bill  be  not  turned 
out  of  the  proper  direction,  so  as  to  disarrange 
the  head ;  which  inconvenience  would  be  difficult 
to  remedy  at  a  future  time.  Take  care  not  to 
injure  the  tail,  in  closing  up  the  cone. 

Prepare  a  box  of  light  wood,  but  solid  ;  strew 
the  bottom  with  any  soft  matter  you  have  used 
in  stuffing  ;  lay  on  this,  first,  the  large  birds,  then 
the  small  ones  between  ;  cover  these  with  the 
stuffing  matter,  and  add  another  layer  of  smaller 
birds ;  in  this  manner  fill  the  box.  Salt-hay  is 
the  best  material  you  can  employ  for  packing. 
If  the  box  is  to  go  a  long  voyage,  it  should  be 
caulked  and  coated  with  pitch  on  the  outside  ;  this 
will  keep  out  alike  the  wet,  dust  and  insects.  A 
case  thus  prepared  may  be  kept  upon  a  voyage 
two  or  three  years. 

If  you  have  none  of  the  above  means  of  pre- 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  79 

paration,  or  lack  time  for  taking  off  the  skin,  or 
wish  to  keep  the  bird  whole  for  anatomical  pur- 
poses, you  may  put  him,  if  very  small,  in  spirit ; 
if  large,  in  a  cask  of  brine.  We  have  seen  some 
kept  a  long  time  in  this  manner,  and  recover  in 
the  hands  of  an  able  operator  most  of  their  ori- 
ginal colours. 

With  regard  to  birds  already  mounted — that 
is,  fully  prepared  and  fixed  in  the  cabinet,- — it  is 
seldom  that  they  are  required  to  go  on  long  jour- 
neys ;  when  this  happens,  they  should  be  wrapped 
up  carefully  in  paper  rolled  into  a  conical. shape, 
and  placed  in  boxes  as  above  directed. 

2.  Mammiferous  Animals.     The  small  kind 
may  be  transported  in  spirit ;  but  the  larger  must 
be    skinned    as  we  shall    hereafter    direct,   and 
packed  in  tight  cases  as  above.     If  it  happens 
that  you  have  not  the  means  there  directed  for 
preparing  the  skin,  you  may  substitute  a  powder 
of  calcined  alum  and  arsenic,  or  a  simple  mix- 
ture of  salt  and  ashes ;  or  in  lack  of  all  these, 
you  may  give  the  skin  a  complete  drying. 

3.  Reptiles  and  Fishes.     Most  of  these  are 
transported  in  spirit;   we  know  of  no  better  me- 
thod   than    that   proposed  by   M.   Dufresne :  — 
Wrap  the  fish  in  a  cloth,  and  sew  him  up ;  fill  a 
cask  two-thirds  with  any  sort  of  spirit,  choosing 
that  which  is  not  too  highly  coloured, — its  strength 


80  PRACTICAL    NATURALIST. 

should  be  equal  to  14  or  15  degrees  of  Baume's 
areometer :  at  the  bottom  of  the  cask  put  the 
largest  fish,  and  decrease  in  size  till  you  have 
filled  it ;  the  cask  should  be  headed  and  hooped 
tight,  and  done  over  with  pitch. 

The  largest  species  must  be  skinned,  and  pre- 
pared like  the  mammiferous  tribe. 

4.  Crustaceans  Animals.     Spirit  is  apt  to  dis- 
colour these  subjects,  and  the  large  kinds  would 
be  expensive  from  the  quantity  they  require ;  we 
may  therefore  recommend  the  direction  of  M. 
Bosc:  — Put  them  in  weak  spirit,  in  which  you 
have  dissolved  a  quantity  of  soap ;  let  them  soak 
in  this  liquor  as  long  as  you  have  time  to  spare  — 
never  less  than  15  days  ;  then  dry  them  upon  a 
board,  taking  care  to  give  them  a  good  attitude. 

These  preparations  are  easily  broken,  and 
should  be  packed  carefully  in  tow,  cotton,  &c. 
It  is  needless  to  detail  any  method. 

5.  Insects.     These   require    even   more   care 
than  the   preceding ;    such  as  will  admit  of  it, 
should  be  preserved  in  spirit ;  the  others  may  be 
fastened  with  pins  upon  sheets  of  cork,  and  pack- 
ed according  to  the  skill  and  means  of  the  opera- 
tor.    Butterflies  may  be  stuck  with  gum  upon 
paper.     The  boxes  holding  all  these,  should  be 
furnished  with  small  quantities  of  camphor. 

6.  Shells  should  be  stuffed  with  cotton,  tow, 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  81 

&c, — when  they  may  be  packed  in  the  same,  or 
in  saw-dust,  fine  sand,  or  moss. 

7.  Zoophytes.     The  soft  kind  must  be  trans- 
ported in  spirit ;  the  others  may  be  packed  in  the 
ordinary  way,    after   being    well    cleansed    and 
dried. 

8.  Plants  must    be  kept  in    an  herbal;    but 
those  of  a  pulpy  nature,  as  mushrooms,  in  spirit. 

9.  Minerals.    To  pack  specimens  of  minerals, 
first  cover  them  with  fine  paper ;  above  this  pa- 
per put  that  on  which   the  notes  are  written  ; 
then   a  second  fine   paper, — which  cover  with 
tow,  and  wrap  the  whole  in  brown  paper.     Then 
arrange   all  the  specimens  in  a  case,  close  upon 
one  another,  filling  all  the  interstices  with  cut 
paper  or  tow, — so  that  the  whole  shall  form  a 
mass  that  nothing  can  disturb.     The  case  should 
be  covered  with  pitch,  to  defend  it  from  air  and 
damp. 

When  the  cases  are  filled,  closed,  and  pitched, 
they  may  be  enveloped  in  an  oiled  canvas,  and 
placed  (if  beyond  sea)  in  a  part  of  the  vessel 
where  they  may  remain  till  their  arrival, — shel- 
tered as  much  as  possible  from  excess  of  heat, 
and  out  of  the  reach  of  rats.  It  is  desirable  that 
they  should  not  be  opened  or  unpacked  at  the 
wharves,  or  until  they  reach  their  destination. 


82  PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 


OF  THE  INSTRUMENTS  NECESSARY  TO  THE 
PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 

1.  Scalpel.     A  knife  with  a  short  blade,  and 
the  handle  flat  at  the  end ;  it  may  be  single  or 
two-edged. 

2.  Pincers,  of  various  powers. 

,  3.  Forceps  for  dissection.  Some  with  the 
jaws  notched  and  jagged  on  the  inner  surface,  to 
seize  the  smallest  fragments  of  skin,  muscle, 
nerve,  &c. 

4.  Scissors,  with  long  handles.     The  same  of 
the  common  sort,  with  sharp  points.     Surgeons' 
scissors,  with  crooked  blades. 

5.  Flat  nippers,  of  various  sizes ;    a  pair  of 
sharp   nippers,  sufficiently  strong  to  cut  a  large 
iron-wire. 

6.  Rasps  and   Files,   of   various   degrees  of 
fineness. 

7.  Awls,  punches,   and   gimlets,   of  several 
sizes,  to  pierce  holes  for  wires  in  the  legs,  head, 
&c. 

8.  A  handsaw,  with  a  strong,  well-tempered 
blade,  and  fine  teeth  ;  this  is   indispensable   for 
dividing  the  bones.     Other  small  saws. 

9.  A   small   hammer  and  nails,  of   different 
lengths. 

10.  Brushes,      Paint-brushes,  to   apply  the 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  83 

preservative  matter  to  the  skins.  Other  soft 
brushes,  to  clean  the  fur  and  feathers  from  dust, 
&c. 

11.  Wire,*  of  different  sizes,  for  mounting 
your  subjects.  Pass  it  through  the  fire  before 
using  it.  The  wire  may  be  proportioned  to  the 
bird,  according  to  the  following  scale. 

No.  1.  For  birds  of  the  size  of  the  Wren  and 
Tom-tit. 

No.  2.  The  Linnet  and  Goldfinch. 

No.  3.  Black-bird,  Loriot. 

No.  4.  Pigeon,  Partridge. 

No.  5.  Pheasant,  Duck. 

No.  6.  Bittern,  Heron. 

No.  7.   Turkey,  Goose,  Peacock. 

No.  8.  Bustard,  Crane. 

No.  9.  Pelican,  Flamingo,  Swan. 

And  the  stoutest  you  can  procure  for  the  Cas- 
sowary, Ostrich,  &c. 


OF  THE  MATERIALS  FOR  STUFFING. 

As  upon  the  proper  choice  of  these  materials 
must  depend  the  preservation  of  your  subjects, 
we  shall  go  into  some-  detail  here.  The  best 
materials  are  — 

*  The  wire  which  we  buy  with  the  polish  on,  is  not  sufficiently 
pliant,  but  snaps  in  bending. 


84  PRACTICAL,    NATURALIST. 

1.  Cotton,  for  small  birds,  and  those  of  any 
size  where  you  can  afford  the  proper  quantity. 
When  it  is  of  a  long  staple,  and  your  subject  be 
very  small,  chop  it  up  with  scissors. 

2.  Flax  and  Hemp,  combed  more  or  less  fine, 
according  as  you  want  it.     This  should  be  em- 
ployed for  birds  of  the   size  of  a  pigeon  and 
larger  ;  for  smaller  ones  it  may  be  chopped. 

3.  Moss.     Before  using  it,  pick  it  clean,  and 
bake  it  in  an  oven  to  kill  the  vermin  which  may 
infest  it ;    use  it  for  birds  as  big  as  a  hen   or 
larger. 

4.  Salt-grass.      An  excellent  material,  as  it 
seldom  contains  insects ;   apply  it  the   same  as 
moss  ;    wash  it  first  in  fresh-water,  as  the  salt 
with  which  it  is  imbued  would  attract  humidity. 

5.  Common  grass,  baked  in  the  oven,  may  be 
used  to  stuff  large  animals, — such  as  the  dog, 
wolf,  bear,  or  the  pelican,  swan,  ostrich,  &c. 

6.  Straw  is  seldom  used,  except  for  very  large 
animals, — like  the  deer,  horse,  bison,  or  rhinoce- 
ros.    It  is  not  commonly  baked,  though  this  pre- 
caution may  have  its  use. 

When  none  of  the  above  are  at  hand,  and  you 
are  driven  to  substitutes,  be  careful  to  select 
them  from  the  vegetable  kingdom.  Never  make 
use  of  wool,  hair,  or  any  animal  substance  ;  they 
all  attract  insects. 

A  subject  need  not  be  restricted  to  a  single 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  85 

material;  different  parts  may  be  stuffed  with  dif- 
ferent matter,  according  to  the  size  of  the  cavity 
to  be  filled. 

If  your  subject  be  very  valuable  and  you 
have  sufficient  time,  you  may  have  an  additional 
means  of  preservation,  by  soaking  the  stuffing 
for  twenty-four  hours  in  a  strong  solution  of 
alum;  take  care  to  dry  it  completely  before  use. 


OF    PRESERVATIVES. 

The  best  preservative  against  the  ravages  of 
insects,  is  that  furnished  by  the  naturalist  Be- 
coeur  ;  his  arsenical  soap  is  used  with  success  in 
the  Museum  of  Natural  History  at  Paris,  and  by 
all  the  operators,  traders  and  amateurs  in  these 
articles,  in  the  capital.  It  is  made  thus:  — 
Arsenic  pulverized,  2  Ibs 

Salt  of  Tartar,  12  oz 

,  Camphor,  5  oz 

*  White  Soap,  2  Ibs 

Lime  in  powder,  4  oz 

Shave  the  soap  into  small  pieces,  put  it  in  an 
earthen-pan  over  a  slow  fire,  add  a  little  water, 
and  while  it  dissolves  stir  it  with  a  wooden  spatula ; 
take  it  off  and  add  the  tartar  in  powder ;  stir  it 
well  till  the  whole  is  amalgamated,  then  add  by 
little  and  little  the  lime  and  arsenic  ;  as  it  grows 
8 


86  PRACTICAL     NATURALIST. 

stiff,  triturate  it  till  a  complete  mixture  is  effected. 
Grind  up  the  camphor  in  a  mortar  with  a  little 
spirit  of  wine,  or  dissolve  it  in  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity of  the  same  ;  add  this  to  the  mixture  when 
quite  cold,  but  not  before,  as  the  least  heat  would 
cause  it  to  evaporate  ;  stir  it  well  in,  and  it  is  fit 
for  use.* 

For  preservation,  put  it  in  a  glazed  earthen- 
vessel,  well  stopped,  and  keep  it  in  a  damp  place 
to  prevent  drying.  To  apply  it,  take  a  quantity 
upon  a  brush,  which  dilute  in  water  to  the  con- 
sistence of  thin  paste,  and  anoint  the  hide  or 
whatever  substance  you  wish  to  preserve. 

When  great  quantities  are  requisite  in  the  pre- 
paration of  a  very  large  animal,  it  has  been  cus- 
tomary to  adulterate  it  with  lime,  in  the  propor- 
tion of  from  one  quarter  to  a  half. 

Some  naturalists,  apprehending  danger  from 
the  constant  use  of  arsenic,  have  sought  a  sub- 
stitute for  the  above  ;  but  their  efforts  have  not 
met  with  full  success.  To  make  our  work  as 
complete  as  possible,  and  facilitate  new  re- 
searches, we  shall  specify  a  few  of  their  com- 
positions. 

M.  Boitard,  in  his  cabinet  of  natural  history, 

*  When  any  preservative  is  mentioned  in  the  course  of  the 
work  without  any  allusion  to  its  composition,  it  is  to  be  under- 
stood that  the  abovementioned  arsenical  soap  is  intended. 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST. 

has  what  he  calls  a  soap  pomade,  of  the  follow- 
ing materials :  — 

White  Soap,  1  Ib 

Potash,  i  Ib 

Alum  in  powder,  4  oz 

Water,  2  Ibs 

Rock  Oil,  4oz 

Camphor,  4  oz 

Shave  up  the  soap,  and  put  it  in  an  earthen 

vessel  over  a  fire;  add  the  water  and  then  the 

potash  ;  when  the  whole  comes  to  a  paste,  add 

the  alum  and  rock-oil;  after  it  is  cold,  mix  in  the 

camphor  ground  up  with  spirit.     Use  this  with 

the  brush  as  before. 

M.  Mouton  de  Fontenille  recommends  a  tan- 
ning liquor,  of  this  composition:  — 

Quinquina  (Peruvian  Bark),  1  oz 

Bark  of  Pomegranate,  1  oz 

Oak  Bark,     ^:  1  oz 

Gentian  Root  1  oz 

Wormwood,  1  oz 

Tobacco,  1  oz 

Alum,  1  oz 

Water,  2  Ibs 

Boil    the   whole   together  except   the    alum, 

which  add  after  taking  it  from  the  fire.     Keep  it 

well  stopped.     With  this  you  should  wet  the 

skin  on  the  inside. 


88  PRACTICAL    NATURALIST. 

Another  author  proposes  an  antiseptic  powder, 
of  the  following  ingredients:  — 

Arsenic,  1  Ib 

Burnt  Alum,  H  Ibs 

Purified  Sea  Salt,  i  Ib 

For  our  part,  we  do  not  recommend  the  use  of 
arsenic  in  powder  ;  it  may  get  into  the  lungs, 
and  cause  serious  mischief. 

Others  use  no  method  but  to  season  the  hide 
with  the  following  composition  :  — 

Burnt  Alum,  3  oz 

Flour  of  Sulphur,  1  oz 

Black  Pepper,  is  oz 

Snuff,  i  oz 

Savin  in  powder,  $  oz 

Camphor,  3  drs 

Others  again  make  use  of  an  ointment  of  tallow 

and  corrosive-sublimate. 

. 

PRESERVATIVES    IN    LIQ,UOR. 

Liquors  are  employed  for  steeping,  for  lotions, 
frictions,  and  internal  applications,  and  finally, 
for  perpetual  preservatives. 

Of  Steeping.  The  hides  of  many  animals, 
particularly  of  the  mammiferous  tribe,  are  too 
thick  to  be  sufficiently  penetrated  by  the  arsen- 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  89 

ical  soap;  steeping  these  becomes  an  indispensa- 
ble operation.  The  following  is  the  composition 
in  use  by  the  Parisian  naturalists:  — 

Water,  4  pints 

Alum,  1  lb 

Salt,  i  lb  —  dissolve  by  boiling. 

Soak  the  hides  in  this,  when  cold.  Those  no 
larger  than  that  of  a  hare,  will  steep  sufficiently 
in  twenty-four  hours.  A  week  or  fortnight 
would  not  be  too  long  for  a  buffalo  or  zebra 
Both  green  and  dried  hides  should  be  steeped, — 
although  those  of  small  creatures,  which  you 
have  kept  a  long  time  in  alcohol,  may  be  ex- 
empted. 

When  a  hide  has  been  imperfectly  prepared 
and  begins  to  corrupt,  you  may  know  this  not 
only  by  the  smell,  but  by  the  hair's  coming  off  at 
the  slightest  touch.  The  curriers  have  the  follow- 
ing remedy: — Soak  it  forty-eight  hours  in  the 
liquor  just  described  ;  take  it  out  and  heat  the 
liquor ;  put  the  hide  in  again,  taking  care  that 
the  liquor  be  not  too  hot ;  when  the  hide  is  well 
heated,  plunge  it  as  suddenly  as  possible  in  very 
cold  water ;  this  sudden  transition  will  cause  a 
general  crisping  of  the  pores,  —  they  contract 
spontaneously,  and  the  hair  becomes  firmly 
fixed. 

A  skin  previously  steeped,  will  require  but  half 
as  much  as  ordinary  of  the  preservative  soap. 
8* 


90  PRACTICAL     NATURALIST. 

The    following    is    a   tanning    liquor   of    M. 
Boitard. 

Tan,  or  oak-bark,  1  lb 

Alum,  4  oz 

Water,  20  Ibs 

Let   it  soak  for  two   days,    stirring    it    from 

time  to  time ;  then  strain  it.     The  skin  should 

be  stretched,  and  the  liquor  poured  on  so  as  to 

keep  it  covered  for  at  least  two  inches.     Four  or 

five  days  will  answer  for  the  maceration  of  small 

quadrupeds  ;    the  larger  require  ten   or  fifteen. 

This  liquor  is  better  than  the   one  in  common 

use,  if  more  alum  were  added  ;  the  tan,  by  its 

astringent  power,  keeps  the  hair  firm. 

Liquors  for  exterior  lavation.  When  you  are 
apprehensive  that  the  insects  will  attack  an  ani- 
mal already  mounted,  you  may  preserve  him  by 
applying  some  one  of  the  following  compositions 
to  his  feathers,  hair,  or  skin.  Subjects  exposed 
to  the  open  air,  stand  in  especial  need  of  this  de- 
fence. Many  amateurs  lose  their  whole  collec- 
tions, by  neglecting  to  employ  it. 

1.  The  Essence  of  Wild  Thyme  has  lately 
been  used  with  much  advantage.  Raise  the  feath- 
ers or  hair  here  and  there  with  a  long  needle,  and 
with  a  hair-pencil  put  a  drop  or  two  on  the  skin 
at  the  roots  of  the  same,-^- which  smooth  down 


PRACTICAL     NATURALIST.  91 

again ;  their  extremities  not  being  touched  by  the 
liquid,  will  receive  no  discoloration. 

2.  Sir  J.  E.  Smith's  Liquid  is  made  of  the 
following  materials:  — 

Corrosive  Sublimate,  2  drs 

Camphor,  2  do 

Alcohol,  1  pint 

Upon  large  animals,  apply  it  with  a  sponge  in 
every  part  of  the  exterior,  till  it  be  saturated 
down  to  the  skin.  With  small  animals,  use  a 
brush  in  the  same  manner.  In  every  case,  do 
not  neglect  to  dry  them  thoroughly. 

The  Bitter  Spirit,  recommended  by  others,  is 
thus  composed :  — 

White  Soap,  1  oz 

Camphor,  2  oz 

Colocynth,  2  oz 

Alcohol,  2  Ibs 

Infuse  the  whole  cold  for  some  days  in  a  ves- 
sel hermetically  closed,  shaking  it  from  time  to 
time  ;  then  filter  it  through  brown  paper ;  keep 
it  tightly  stopped.  Use  it  like  the  preceding. 

3.  Varnishes  are  used  only   for  the  skins  of 
reptiles  and  fishes,  to  which  they  restore  a  por- 
tion of  their  brilliancy.     They  should  be  colour- 
less, and  perfectly  transparent.     Dissolve  fresh 
and  clear  turpentine  in  alcohol,  and  apply  it  with 
a  camel's-hair  pencil ;  dry  it  in  the  air,  taking 
care  to  exclude  the  dust. 


92  PRACTICAL     NATURALIST. 

Liquids  for  internal  application.  Most  of 
these  are  used  for  the  preservation  of  eggs  ;  they 
have  besides  been  injudiciously  employed  in  the 
case  of  very  small  animals. 

To  decompose  the  flesh  of  a  foetus  within  an 
egg,  you  may  employ  a  strong  solution  of  fixed 
alkali  or  tartar  ;  another  material  is  ether. 

In  drying  a  small  animal,  take  out  the  viscera 
of  the  lower  part  of  the  body,  and  plug  up  the 
shot-holes  with  cotton;  draw  out  the  brains  at 
one  of  the  eyes  with  an  ear-picker,  pour  in  ether 
at  the  same  place,  and  stuff  the  skull,  eyes  and 
bill  with  cotton  ;  then  inject  below  a  quantity  of 
ether  with  a  syringe.  The  next  day  renew  this 
operation  at  the  mouth,  stopping  up  all  outlets ; 
repeat  this  till  the  flesh  be  completely  dried. 
But  after  all,  this  will  prove  an  unprofitable  me- 
thod ;  as  besides  the  great  cost,  the  subject  will 
never  make  a  good  appearance. 

Perpetual  preservatives  for  such  animals  as 
cannot  be  dried.  These  liquids  should  possess 
the  following  qualities.  They  must  be,  1st,  free 
from  colour,  that  the  subject  may  not  be  stained; 
2d,  void  of  causticity ,  that  the  colour  of  the  ani- 
mal be  not  changed  thereby ;  3d,  transparent,  to 
exhibit  the  animal  perfectly ;  4th,  not  liable  to 
freeze. 

t 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  93 

The  following  liquids  are  those  the  most  in  use 
for  this  purpose. 

1.  Alcohol,  or  spirit  of  wine  of  the  strength  of 
14  or  18  degrees  of  Baume's  areometer,  appears 
to  occupy  the  first  rank.     Spirits  distilled  from 
grain,    potatoes,    or   molasses,    are    all    equally 
useful. 

2.  M.  Nicolas  recommends  the  following  com- 
position :  — 

Pure  Water,  2  pints 

Alcohol,  1  pint 

Sulphate  of  Alumine,  6  oz 

3.  Graves,  an  English  naturalist,   proposes  a 
liquor  nearly  similar :  — 

Alum,  8  oz 

Water,  1  pint 

Alcohol,  J  pint 

Heat  the  water,  and  when  boiling,  add  the 
alum  in  powder ;  after  cooling,  filter  it  through 
coarse  paper,  and  add  the  alcohol. 

The  same  author  recommends  another  mix- 
ture, to  be  made  cold;  thus:  — 

Water,  1  pint 

Alcohol,  1  pint 

Alum,  12  oz 

4.  The  Abbe  Manesse,  after  several  trials,  re- 
commends the  following  as  the  result  of  his  ex- 
perience:— 


94  PRACTICAL     NATURALIST. 

Alum,  1  Ib 

Nitre,  1  Ib 

Sea  Salt,  1  Ib 

Water,  4  pints 

Alcohol,  1  pint 

The  water  should  be  distilled,  that  it  may  con- 
tain no  foreign  matter ;  the  alum  as  clear  as  pos- 
sible, and  the  salt  purified.  It  may  be  mixed 
cold,  although  it  would  be  better  to  boil  it, — 
taking  care  not  to  add  the  spirit  till  the  rest  be 
cold. 

All  the  above  liquids,  with  the  exception  of 
the  alcohol,  are  more  or  less  subject  to  freeze. 


PART    II. 

TAXIDERMY.* 

WE  give  this  name  to  the  art  of  stuffing  the 
skins  of  animals  ;  and  by  extending  the  term,  to 
that  of  mounting  and  preserving  them,  and  re- 
storing them  to  the  appearance  of  life. 


OF    SKINNING    BIRDS. 

We  shall  begin  with  birds ;  which,  although 
more  easy  to  stuff  than  the  'mammiferous  tribe, 
require  more  study  and  precaution,  if  you  wish 
to  preserve  the  splendour  of  their  colours  and 
the  graces  of  their  attitude. 

We  have  already  given  directions  how  to  treat 
a  bird  when  first  taken  ;  suppose  you  have  him 
now  in  your  hand. 

If  the  feathers  be  bloody,  you  may  restore  the 
freshness  and  beauty  of  their  colour  in  this  way:  — 
Dissolve  a  little  soap  in  water,  and  wash  them 
well ;  wash  again  with  clear  water,  and  sprinkle 
on  your  powdered  plaster ;  this  last  repeated 

*  From  TAffaruy  to  arrange ;  and  eTs/yAOf,  skin. 


96  PRACTICAL    NATURALIST. 

several  times,  will  dry  the  feathers  completely, — 
it  imbibes  the  water  and  forms  a  crust,  which  you 
must  remove,  and  add  more  plaster. 

Birdlime  is  taken  out  as  before  directed  ;  but 
if  the  fat  of  the  bird  has  exuded  at  the  wound 
and  stained  the  feathers,  the  operation  is  more 
difficult;  the  best  method  is  this: — Apply  a 
slight  coat  of  spirit  of  turpentine  with  a  camel's- 
hair  pencil  ;  wash  it  out  with  a  solution  of  pot- 
ash, then  with  alcohol,  then  with  pure  water  ; 
if  the  stain  be  tenacious,  use  the  method  recom- 
mended for  the  butter  applied  to  the  birdlime. 

The  first  thing  in  skinning,  is  to  empty  the 
stomach,  if  it  be  distended;  as  its  contents  may 
escape  by  the  mouth,  and  stain  the  plumage. 
Hold  the  bird  up  by  the  legs,  and  with  the  other 
hand  squeeze  the  contents  down  to  the  mouth, 
where  you  may  take  them  out  with  a  little  pains  ; 
dry  up  any  humid  matter  at  the  mouth  and  else- 
where with  plaster,  and  stop  up  with  cotton  ;  be 
careful  not  to  deform  any  of  these  parts  in  the 
operation, — for,  as  already  remarked,  naturalists 
have  established  characteristic  divisions  upon 
the  shape  of  the  nostrils  and  corners  of  the 
mouth. 

If  the  bill  is  very  short  and  pointed,  so  that 
you  apprehend  a  difficulty  in  pulling  it  out  from 
within  the  skin,  when  the  latter  is  turned  upon 
the  head  in  skinning,  as  hereafter  to  be  ex- 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  .  97 

plained, —  pass  a  wire  through  the  nostrils,  and 
bring  the  two  ends  up  into  a  knot ;  with  this  you 
may  handle  the  beak,  and  hinder  it  from  tearing 
the  skin  during  the  operation. 

Lay  the  bird  upon  his  back, — the  head  to  your 
left  hand,  the  tail  to  your  right;  with  the  finger 
and  thumb  of  the  left  hand  draw  aside  the  feath- 
ers down  to  the  skin,  in  a  line  from  the  throat 
across  the  breast  to  the  belly ;  cut  through  the 
skin  along  this  line, —  the  least  pressure  with  the 
two  fingers  of  the  left  hand  will  draw  the  edges 
of  the  incision  apart ;  seize  one  of  the  edges  with 
your  nippers,  and  with  the  other  hand,  or  the 
flat  handle  of  your  scalpel,  detach  the  skin  from 
the  muscles  as  you  raise  it  with  the  nippers. 
When  you  have  skinned  as  far  as  you  can  go 
under  the  wing,  sprinkle  on  plaster  to  keep  the 
skin  from  the  flesh,  and  take  up  the  blood  and 
fat;  use  the  plaster  for  every  such  necessity;  turn 
the  bird, and  operate  the  same  on  the  other  side, 
till  he  is  skinned  right  and  left  up  to  the  roots  of 
the  w7ings. 

Arrived  at  this  spot,  cut  ofT  the  wings  from  the 
body  with  scissors,  and  be  careful  in  this  process 
not  to  break  the  skin, —  which  accident  is  very 
common  in  the  case  of  small  birds.  Detach  the 
skin  about  the  base  of  the  neck,  and  cut  off  the 
neck  as  near  as  possible  to  the  body. 

You  then  come  to  the  thighs,  which  cut  off 
9 


98  PRACTICAL    NATURALIST. 

like  the  wings,  at  the  joint  of  the  femur  and 
tibia;  —  this  demands  some  explanation, —  few 
people  give  the  right  names  to  the  different  parts 
of  this  limb  of  a  bird ;  the  scaly  part  immedi- 
ately above  the  claws,  commonly  called  the  leg, 
is  named  the  tarsus;  above  this  is  the  heel,  then 
the  tibia,  then  the  femur. 

The  skin  now  adheres  to  the  body  only  on 
the  back  and  lower  parts ;  turn  the  bird  back  up- 
wards, and  draw  the  skin  gently  down,  separat- 
ing the  muscles  with  your  finger  nails  ;  in  ap- 
proaching the  tail,  stop  a  little  short  of  the  in- 
sertion of  the  feathers,  —  cut  it  off  with  the  tail- 
feathers  attached  to  the  skin,  and  the  body  is 
then  disengaged. 

It  remains  to  separate  the  skin  from  the  other 
parts, —  to  begin  with  the  legs ;  strip  the  tibia 
as  far  as  the  heel,  scrape  the  bone  with  the  blade 
of  your  scalpel,  and  carefully  remove  the  small- 
est particle  of  muscle  or  tendon ;  then  give  both 
skin  and  bone  a  good  coat  of  the  preservative; 
stuff  the  tibia  with  tow  or  cotton,  to  replace  the 
flesh,  and  bring  it  to  its  natural  shape. 

Remove  in  the  same  manner  all  remnants  of 
fat  and  muscle  about  the  tail ;  apply  a  coat  of 
the  preservative,  and  stuff  the  part  into  shape. 
Treat  in  a  similar  manner  the  wings,  but  these 
last  will  require  no  stuffing. 

Your  next  care  is  to  strip  the  head :  when  you 


PRACTICAL     NATURALIST.  99 

have  drawn  the  skin  down  to  the  cavity  of  the 
ear,  have  a  care  that  it  does  not  break  in  this 
spot ;  detach  this  part  from  the  head  by  raising 
it  under  the  little  bag  formed  by  the  membrane 
of  the  ear,  plucking  the  extremity  of  this  last 
out  of  the  cavity  of  bone  to  which  it  is  attached. 
Keep  pulling  down  the  skin  till  you  reach  the 
eyes,  and  cut  the  membrane  which  unites  the 
eyelids  to  the  edges  of  the  sockets ;  mind  that 
you  do  not  injure  the  eyelids  in  this  operation, 
nor  crush  the  ball  of  the  eye — which  would 
totally  spoil  the  plumage  with  its  liquid  matter. 

When  the  skin  is  drawn  quite  down  to  the 
root  of  the  bill,  draw  the  eyes  from  their  sockets, 
and  clean  the  latter;  remove  the  muscles  and 
membranes  of  the  skull,  and  all  the  flesh  about 
the  bill,  and  lay  every  bone  bare ;  cut  off  the 
lower  part  of  the  head,  that  you  may  more  easily 
extract  the  brain ;  if  the  bird  be  large,  it  is  suffi- 
cient for  this  purpose  to  enlarge  the  occipital 
cavity ;  the  whole  inside  of  the  skull  may  then 
be  cleaned. — Your  work  of  stripping  is  thus 
completely  finished. 

Now  apply  your  preservative  to  the  interior 
of  the  skin,  within  the  skull,  the  sockets  of  the 
eyes,  the  bill, — in  fact  in  every  place  where  you 
deem  it  necessary ;  but  avoid  the  eyelids,  as  by 
passing  through  the  cavities  of  the  eyes,  it  would 
stain  the  feathers.  Stuff  the  skull,  the  orbits  of 


100         PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 

the  eyes,  ancTthe  bill;  this  done,  immediately 
turn  the  skin  of  the  neck — which  has  hitherto 
been  inside  out — back  again. 

All  these  operations  must  be  done  with  de- 
spatch; the  skin  of  the  head  is  very  slender,  and 
dries  quick ;  once  dry,  it  will  be  very  difficult  to 
turn.  Until  you  have  acquired  dexterity  in  the 
practice,  you  would  do  well  to  keep  the  skin 
moist,  by  sprinkling  it  from  time  to  time  with  the 
steeping  liquids  we  have  prescribed,  or  even  with 
water. 

The  skin  of  the  neck  is  very  pliant  ;  take 
care  not  to  stretch  it  much  in  skinning,  turning, 
or  stuffing;  when  it  is  extended  beyond  its  pro- 
per length,  it  becomes  flabby,  and  the  feathers 
so  disarranged  that  it  is  impossible  to  smooth 
them. 

As  soon  as  the  whole  skin  is  restored  to  its 
proper  shape,  set  the  plumage  in  order, — for  if 
you  postpone  this  till  the  skin  be  dry,  you  will 
fitfd  it  impossible.  For  this  purpose,  hold  it  by 
the  bill,  shake  it  gently,  blow  in  the  direction  of 
the  feathers ;  pinch  down  with  the  nippers  any 
contrary  feathers  here  and  there  ;  with  the  same 
implement  open  the  eyelids,  put  them  into  shape 
by  arranging  the  stuffing  in  the  sockets.  Intro- 
duce the  preservative  at  the-bill;  and  if  wanted, 
stuff  in  cotton  to  replace  any  deficient  member, 
as  the  tongue,  larynx,  &c. 


PRACTICAL  NATURALIST,         101 

You  come  now  to  the  stuffing  of  the  body. 
Beginning  with  the  neck,  lay  the  bird  upon  the 
back  as  directed  at  the  first  of  the  operation ; 
pass  into  the  neck  the  stuffing  matter  with  a  pair 
of  slender  pincers ;  the  skull,  you  will  recollect, 
remains  attached  to  the  skin,  but  denuded  of  all 
its  flesh  ;  introduce  the  stuffing  carefully  between 
the  skin  and  the  skull,  to  bring  the  head  to  its 
proper  shape;  this  done,  fill  up  the  neck,  by  add- 
ing wads  of  stuffing  larger  and  larger  as  the  neck 
increases  in  diameter. 

We  now  come  to  a  process  the  more  indis- 
pensable, inasmuch  as  it  determines  the  possi- 
bility of  giving  the  wings  a  good  position  in 
mounting.  The  bone  which  joins  the  wing  to 
the  body,  is  named  the  humerus;  the  two  next, 
which  articulate  with  this  and  run  close  together 
the  whole  of  their  length,  are  the  radius  and  the 
cubitus;  take  each  wing  by  the  humerus,  and 
draw  them  together  over  the  back  ;  then,  with  a 
needle  or  awl,  pass  a  wire  between  the  radius 
and  cubitus  of  each,  and  twist  the  ends  of  the 
wire  together, — so  as  to  bring  the  wings  a  line  or 
two  apart  in  the  smallest  birds,  three  lines  in  those 
of  the  size  of  a  lark,  and  progressively  for  the 
rest;  it  is  necessary  to  be  explicit  here,  for  the 
point  is  essential; — the  above  distances  are  to 
be  reckoned  between  the  upper  edges  of  the 
wings  when  elevated,  and  from  the  joint  made 
9* 


102         PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 

by  the  articulation  of  the  humerus  with  the 
radius  and  cubitus  of  one  wing,  to  the  same 
joint  of  the  other  wing. 

This  done,  apply  a  new  coat  of  preservative 
to  all  the  bones  of  the  wings  which  you  can  get 
at ;  then  wedge  in  between  the  joints  of  the  hu- 
merus just  mentioned,  a  wad  for  the  purpose  yf 
keeping  them  apart.  Apply  the  preservative  to 
every  part  of  the  skin,  but  take  care  to  let  none 
of  it  touch  the  feathers;  the  stain  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  efface. 

The  remainder  of  the  stuffing  process  will  not 
require  any  detail ;  no  cavity  or  fold  of  the  skin 
should  remain  empty;  bring  it  out  to  its  natural 
size  ;  it  should  not  be  stuffed  harder  than  to  offer 
about  the  same  degree  of  resistance  as  a  sponge, 
when  pressed,  —  Your  bird  is  now  stuffed  ;  if  he 
is  to  be  sent  away  before  mounting,  close  the 
edges  of  the  skin,  and  pin  them  together  if  ne- 
cessary,— which  however  is  not  generally  the 
case;  he  should  be  kept  free  from  dampness. 

It  is  difficult  to  preserve  an  ostrich,  by  making 
use  of  the  arsenical  soap  only.  .The  feathers 
being  very  long  and  thick,  you  must  soak  them 
with  spirit  of  turpentine  at  their  roots,  and  place 
little  bags  of  camphor  at  intervals.  - 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  103 


OF    MOUNTING    BIRDS. 

To  mount  an  animal,  as  we  shall  use  the  word, 
is  to  give  him  the  attitude,  grace,  and  air  of  ani- 
mation, which  he  possessed  while  living.  A 
bird  is  mounted  either  fresh,  or  prepared;  in  the 
first  case,  the  operation  is  performed  immediately 
upon  stuffing  and  skinning  ;  in  the  second  in- 
stance, we  suppose  that  the  skin  has  become  dry 
after  this  process, — in  which  case  it  must  be 
softened,  in  order  to  receive  a  proper  shape. 
Subjects  generally  receive  the  first  preparation 
at  a  distance  from  the  spot  where  they  are  finally 
arranged  for  the  cabinet.  We  shall  suppose  this 
last  instance. 

Take  out  the  stuffing,  and  return  a  quantity  of 
similar  matter  previously  dipped  in  water,  taking 
care  not  to  wet  the  feathers  ;  having  put  the  skin 
to  soak  in  this  manner,  proceed  to  the  legs,  and 
wind  around  them  quantities  of  wet  tow ;  in  large 
birds  the  legs  take  some  days  to  soften,  for  which 
reason  you  should  begin  with  them  first.  Put 
the  bird  in  a  vessel  or  basket,  and  stop  out  the 
dry  air  by  covering  him  with  tow  or  cotton ;  place 
it  in  a  cellar  or  damp  place,  till  the  skin  has 
grown  supple  ;  for  small  birds,  twenty-four  hours 
will  suffice;  large  ones  require  three  or  four  days. 
When  you  have  examined  the  skin  throughout, 


104  PRACTICAL    NATURALIST. 

and  find  it  sufficiently  soft,  take  out  the  wet  stuf- 
fing, and  apply  a  coat  of  the  preservative  ;  then 
stuff  it  for  the  last  time. 

Now  get  ready  your  wires ;  we  have  already 
specified  their  proportionate  sizes.  Cut  one  wire 
for  the  chief  supporter,  that  is,  one  fourth  longer 
than  the  length  from  the  beak  to  the  beginning  of 
the  tail, — we  will  call  this  the  main  wire;  straighten 
it,  and  sharpen  the  two  ends ;  cut  two  others  of 
equal  size,  and  long  enough  for  the  legs;  sharpen 
one  end  of  each. 

Bore  a  hole  through  the  claw  upwards,  and 
introduce  one  of  the  wires  for  the  legs ;  pass  it 
behind  the  tarsus  to  the  heel,  straighten  the  joint, 
and.  continue  the  wire  through  the  tibia  to  the 
body; — you  thus  have  all  the  joints  of  the  legs 
straight,  and  can  bend  them  into  any  position  you 
choose  ;  the  wires  you  will  recollect  are  previ- 
ously to  be  passed  through  the  fire. 

Take  the  main  wire,  and  at  one-third  from  the 
end  twist  a  portion  of  it  into  a  spiral  ring ;  pass 
the  shorter  end  through  the  centre  of  the  neck 
to  the  head,  bore  through  the  cranium  with  the 
point  of  the  wire  till  it  comes  through  in  front ; 
the  proportions  of  the  wire  must  be  so  managed, 
that  in  this  position  the  spiral  ring  is  just  below 
the  thighs,  and  the  lower  end  of  the  wire  going 
through  the  rump  passes  out  among  the  tail-feath- 
ers to  their  extremity;  the  wire  thus  extends 


PRACTICAL  NATURALIST.        105 

through  the  head,  neck,,  body  and  tail,  from  end 
to  end.  Twist  the  upper  ends  of  the  leg-wires 
with  your  pincers  around  the  spiral  ring,  and 
bend  all  the  wires  so  as  to  bring  the  bird  into 
proper  shape. 

The  central  wire  should  be  passed  into  the 
neck  after  stuffing ;  this  is  not  only  the  easi- 
est method,,  but  it  preserves  the  neck  in  its  cy- 
lindrical form.  Even  the  long  neck  of  a  swan 
should  be  no  exception. 

If  you  desire  to  have  the  tail  spread,  twist  the 
lower  extremity  of  the  wire  into  a  ring,  or  fork 
it  by  adding  another  piece ;  these  support  the 
feathers  in  an  extended  position.  All  the  above 
despatched,  finish  the  stuffing  and  sew  up  ;  this 
last  must  be  done  with  care,  that  no  traces  of  the 
seam  remain  ;  in  taking  the  stitches,  always 
pierce  the  skin  on  the  inside  ;  if  any  part  be 
pressed  out  of  shape  during  the  process,  you 
may  re-adjust  the  stuffing  afterwards,  by  thrust- 
ing a  large  needle  or  fine  awl  under  the  skin. 

In  setting  the  legs  in  position,  observe  that  the 
joints  of  the  heel  should  jut  toward  the  under 
part  of  the  tail,  and  that  these  joints  should  be 
nearer  together  than  the  lower  extremities  of  the 
legs.  This  is  the  time  for  knowing  whether  the 
habit  of  the  bird  is  to  perch,  or  not, —  that  is, 
whether  he  alights  upon  a  branch  or  a  flat  sur- 
face. The  study  of  Natural  History  alone  can 


106         PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 

give  any  precise  knowledge  upon  this  point  ; 
still  we  can  furnish  the  reader  with  such  general 
information,  as  will  enable  him  to  avoid  any  gross 
errors. 

Birds  of  prey  in  general  perch  ;  vultures  perch 
or  not,  at  pleasure.  In  a  picture  or  cabinet,  you 
may  put  eagles,  vultures,  and  most  nocturnal 
birds  of  prey  upon  a  heap  of  rocks. 

The  tribe  of  passeres,  constituting  the  ancient 
class  of  pies  and  ravens  in  the  system  of  Lin- 
naeus, all  perch.  Some  of  them,  as  the  magpie, 
crow,  &EC,  may  perch  or  not.  Woodpeckers 
may  be  stuck  against  any  perpendicular  body, — 
holding  on  with  the  claws,  and  resting  upon  the 
tail. 

The  other  classes  of  passeres  are  of  the  perch- 
ing habit,  except  some  kinds  of  larks,  and  the 
house-pigeon.  Starlings  and  blackbirds,  in  cer- 
tain circumstances,  do  not  perch. 

Geese,  ducks,  and  generally  all  web-footed 
birds,  save  the  cormorant,  do  not  perch. 

Birds  which  frequent  the  sea-shore,  and  gener- 
ally all  that  have  the  tarsus  long,  and  a  bare  leg, 
never  perch. 

Gallinaceous  fowl,*  for  the  most  part,  do  not 

*  Comprising  the  barn-door  fowl,  turkey,  peacock,  pheasant, 
partridge,  &c. 


PRACTICAL  NATUKALIST.        107 

perch  ;  although  a  few  offer  occasional  excep- 
tions, as  the  pheasant,  peacock,  and  guinea-hen. 

In  placing  the  bird  in  position,  let  him  not 
look  straight  forward,  if  you  wish  to  give  him  an 
animated  or  graceful  air ;  turn  his  head  some- 
what to  the  right  or  left ;  sometimes  you  may 
raise  the  beak  a  little.  The  operator,  however, 
must  consult  his  own  taste.  See  farther  on,  what 
we  shall  say  under  the  article  of  grouping. 

If  the  wings  are  large,  and  hang  out  of  shape, 
they  may  be  furnished  with  supporters  of  wire. 

But  before  placing  in  the  cabinet,  your  subject 
is  to  be  dried ;  for  this  purpose,  wrap  him  care- 
fully in  fine  cloth  or  muslin, —  this  will  keep  the 
feathers  from  being  disordered.  After  drying, 
furnish  him  with  artificial  eyes,  of  the  same  colour 
as  the  living.  For  birds  no  larger  than  a  spar- 
row, a  mere  black  dot  is  sufficient ;  for  the  middle 
size,  solid,  coloured  eyes  may  be  used  ;  but  the 
largest,  as  ostriches,  &c,  must  have  them  of 
blown-glass.  To  fix  the  eye,  you  must  first 
soften  the  eyelid,  take  out  a  little  of  the  stuffing 
at  that  place,  and  return  it  wet, —  in  an  hour  or 
so  take  it  out  again,  and  enlarge  the  opening  ; 
stick  the  eye  in  with  gum-water;  arrange  the 
pupils  with  a  needle,  that  the  eyes  may  not 
squint  —  unless  you  wish  to  represent  the  bird  in 
a  passion  ;  we  have  remarked,  that  these  ani- 


108         PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 

mals,  when  enraged,  bring  the  pupils  of  the  eyes 
towards  one  another;  in  a  state  of  repose,  they 
are  in  the  middle  of  the  orbit ;  when  agitated  by 
love,  they  are  turned  away  toward  the  outeY 
angle  of  the  eye. 

Now  with  a  sharp  pair  of  pincers  cut  off  the 
top  of  the  wire  even  with  the  crest,  smooth 
down  the  feathers,  and  your  subject  is  fit  for  the 
cabinet. 


Remedies  for  Occasional  Difficulties. 

1.  Sometimes  the  head  of  a  bird  is  furnished 
with  a  crest  or  comb,  requiring  careful  handling; 
or  is  too  large  to  admit  the  skin  of  the  neck  to 
be  turned  over  it: — Make  an  incision  from  the 
crest  to  the  first  vertebrae  of  the  neck ;   and  by 
means  of  this,  prepare  the   head  as  before  di- 
rected. 

2.  If  the   bird  has  a  fleshy  comb,  you  may 
follow  two  methods ;   in  the  first,  stretch  it  out 
with  pins  and  wires  till  dry,  after  which  you  may 
paint  and  varnish  it; — in  this  process,  however, 
the  membranes  contract,  and  destroy  that  appear- 
ance of  animation,  which  constitutes  the  beauty  of 
the  subject.     In  the  second  method,  remove  the 


PRACTICAL     NATURALIST.  109 

whole   mass,  and  substitute  an  artificial  one   of 
mastic,  coloured  according  to  life.* 

3.  Web-footed  fowl   should  have   their  claws 
stretched  out  with  pins  in  drying:  all  the  scaly 
parts  should  receive  a  coat  of  spirit  of  turpen- 
tine,— -as  a  preservation,  and  to  maintain  their 
brilliancy. 

4.  In  a  large  bird,  if  the  wings  hang  down  by 
their  own  weight,  they  may  be  kept  in  position 
by  wires  passed  through  them, — as  in  the  case 
of  the  legs. 

5.  If  a  bird  worth  preserving  has  lost  some  of 
his  feathers,  select  from  some  other  bird  a  quan- 
tity of  feathers  which  resemble  the  lost  ones  ; 
with  these  you  may  replace  the  deficiency,  thus: 
— cut  off  the  quill  of  each  feather,  dip  the  cut 

*  Good  mastic  maybe  manufactured  thus:  —  Take  two  parts 
of  whiting,  and  one  part  of  white-lead ;  grind  them  in  a  marble 
or  metal  mortar  with  a  little  nut-oil,  made  desiccative  as  for 
painting;  or  if  the  oil  be  unprepared,  it  must  be  very  old;  then 
let  it  ferment  twenty-four  hours  at  least;  after  which,  add  more 
oil,  and  grind  again  till  it  be  soft  and  ductile,  so  as  not  to  stick 
to  the  fingers.  This  is  good  white  mastic. 

To  colour  it,  add  during  the  trituration, — lampblack  for  any 
degree  of  dark  colour,  red-lead  for  flesh,  vermilion  for  the  red 
parts  of  certain  animals,  indigo  and  red  mixed  for  the  violet 
membranes  of  the  turkey,  ochre  for  yellow,  &c.  Keep  the 
mastic  in  a  leather-bag  or  vessel ;  the  older  it  is,  the  better — 
provided  it  does  not  dry.  When  used,  it  should  be  softened 
anew  with  oil. 

10 


110        PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 

end  in  gum-water,  and  stick  it  in  its  proper  place 
upon  the  skin  ;  when  you  have  completed  a  row 
thus,  begin  another  row  above  them,  covering 
two-thirds  of  each  feather  in  the  first  row ; 
proceed  thus,  till  the  whole  vacant  space  is 
covered. 

6.  If  you  have   the  skin  of  a  bird  in  pieces, 
or  if  you  have  two  or  more  of  the  same  kind 
all  partially  deficient,  you  may  construct  a  com- 
plete subject  by  putting  together  different  parts 
of  them  all ;  make  a  stuffed  body  of  the  shape 
of  the  bird,  and  glue  on  the  several  pieces  with 
gum-water;  they  should  be  all  of  the  same  sex 
and  age. 

7.  The  bills  and  legs  are  apt  sometimes   to 
lose  their  colour, — this  may  be  restored  by  paint- 
ing ;  the  paint  should  be  very  fine,  and  prepared 
with  oil  of  pinks;  add  a  coat  of  varnish.     If  the 
legs  have  lost  their  scales,  you  may  remedy  this 
to  a  certain  degree  by  little  bits  of  parchment, 
stuck  on  with  gum-water;  varnish  these  likewise. 


PREPARATION    IN    DEMI-RELIEF. 

This  gives  a  profile  view  of  half  the  bird :  — 
Cut  one-half  the  skin,  taking  the  whole  tail; 
with  a  fine  saw  cut  off  half  the  head,  saving  the 


PRACTICAL  NATURALIST.         Ill 

bill ;  you  may  attach  this  to  a  sheet  of  thick  paste- 
board or  wood,  stuffing  it  properly;  let  the  head 
be  turned  a  little  toward  the  spectator,  and  the 
effect  of  the  attitude  will  be  much  increased. 
The  above  is  a  good  method,  when  you  have  a 
valuable  subject  partly  injured. 


PREPARATION    IN     ST    ESPRIT.* 

By  this  method,  subjects  may  be  compendi- 
ously packed.  Skin  the  bird  as  already  directed, 
but  leave  no  bony  part ;  cut  off  the  skull  as  near 
as  you  can  to  the  roots  of  the  bill,  taking  care 
not  to  injure  these  last ;  in  a  small  bird  you  may 
leave  the  tarsus, but  not  in  large  ones;  scrape  off 
all  the  fat  from  the  skin,  and  give  it  a  coat  of 
preservative ;  when  three-quarters  dry,  lay  it 
upon  brown  unsized  paper,  and  spread  out  the 
wings,  tail,  legs,  &c;  stuff  a  little  cotton  in  the 
head,  to  bring  it  on  a  level  with  the  beak ;  add 
artificial  eyes,  cover  the  whole  with  paper,  and 
press  it  lightly  between  boards ;  shift  the  papers 
every  day  if  they  grow  damp;  when  dry  you 

*  This  is  explained  by  the  French  authors,  as  an  *  attitude 
que  les  peintres  donnent  a  la  colombe  par  laquelle  Us 
representent  le  St  Esprit,  c'est-d-dire,  qu'on  etend  les 
ttiles,'  &c. 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST. 


may  fasten  it  upon  pasteboard.  Preparations  of 
this  sort  you  may  keep  in  portfolios.  Preserve 
them  from  insects  by  Smith's  liquid. 


PICTURES. 

Draw  with  a  lead-pencil  the  profile  of  a  bird 
upon  fine  pasteboard;  cover  the  figure  with  gum, 
and  stick  upon  this  the  feathers  plucked  from  the 
bird  ;  add  the  bill  and  legs  the  same  way,  or  by 
painting.  The  whole  may  be  framed  like  a 
common  picture.  These  preparations,  however, 
are  more  valuable  as  ornaments  than  as  objects 
of  science. 


NESTS    AND    EGGS. 

These  are  generally  neglected,  but  they  are 
not  without  interest  in  the  study  of  natural  his- 
tory. A  nest,  before  being  placed  in  the  cabi- 
net, should  be  baked, —  to  destroy  the  insects. 
When  it  consists  in  whole  or  in  part  of  animal 
matter,  as  feathers,  wool,  and  the  like,  soak  it 
with  Smith's  liquid. 

Eggs  are  prepared  thus: — Pierce  one  end, 
break  the  yolk  with  a  needle,  shake  the  egg  till 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  113 

the  yolk  and  white  are  mixed  ;  then  pierce  the 
other  end,  and  blow  out  the  contents  ;  rinse  the 
shell  clean  with  water  by  a  syringe. 

If  there  be  a  chick  within,  stick  it  in  as  many 
places  as  you  can  with  the  needle,  and  inject  a 
strong  solution  of  fixed  alkali,  or  salt  of  tartar; 
shake  it,  and  leave  it  till  the  next  day;  by  this 
time  a  portion  of  the  contents  will  be  decom- 
posed, and  you  may  blow  it  out.  Repeat  this 
operation  till  you  have  emptied  the  shell. 


OF    SKINNING    AND    MOUNTING    MAMMIFEROUS 
ANIMALS. 

The  first  thing  which  demands  attention,  is  to 
note  whether  the  animal  has  been  dead  suffi- 
ciently long  for  the  blood  to  coagulate  ;  for  if  it 
be  still  warm,  it  will  escape  at  every  stroke  of 
the  knife,  and  stain  the  fur. 

We  shall  particularize  only  such  details  as  dis- 
tinguish this  process  from  that  previously  de- 
scribed. Take  off  the  head  and  legs  with  the 
skin  as  before  ;  skin  the  legs  down  to  the  feet, 
and  remove  from  the  bones  all  the  flesh,  muscles, 
nerves,  and  tendons, — but  spare  the  ligaments  of 
the  joints,  that  these  last  may  not  separate.  If 
the  hoof  be  large  and  fleshy,  remove  the  flesh 
10* 


114         PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 

and  fat.  To  skin  the  tail  is  the  most  difficult :  — 
lay  bare  the  first  two  or  three  joints,  and  tie 
them  strongly  with  a  cord ;  fasten  the  cord  to  a 
wall ;  take  a  cleft  stick,  and  pinch  with  the  split 
the  bare  joints  of  the  tail ;  then,  with  a  hand  on 
each  end  of  the  stick,  draw  towards  the  extrem- 
ity, and  the  bones  of  the  tail  will  come  out  of  the 
sheath. 

In  skinning  the  head, — when  you  reach  the 
ear,  take  out  along  with  the  skin  the  membrane 
attached  to  the  cavity  of  the  ear,  by  detaching  it 
as  carefully  as  possible  close  to  the  bone  to  which 
it  adheres.  Arrived  at  the  eyes,  be  careful  not 
to  injure  the  eyelids ;  pull  upon  the  hide  a  little, 
and  when  the  membranes  which  unite  the  eyelids 
to  the  orbits  are  well  stretched,  cut  them  off;  skin 
away  down  to  the  nose. 

The  hide  is  now  attached  to  the  skull  only 
by  the  nose,  and  the  tip  of  the  lower-jaw  ;  en- 
large the  occipital  opening,  that  you  may  take 
out  the  brains ;  remove  all  the  flesh  and  muscles 
from  the  skull,  but  spare  the  ligatures  of  the 
jaws. 

When  a  large  animal  is  killed  far  from  any 
habitation,  and  there  is  no  Opportunity  of  steep- 
ing the  skin,  the  following  method  may  be  pur- 
sued. When  the  hide  is  cold,  sprinkle  it  on  the 
inside  with  cinders, — after  having  extended  it  o  i 
some  boughs  for  the  air  to  circulate  below.  Put 


PRACTICAL  NATURALIST.         115 

spirit  of  turpentine  on  the  ears,  lips,  and  feet, 
several  times.  In  two  or  three  days,  when  the 
hide  is  a  little  dry,  turn  it  the  hair  within  ;  and 
if  sea-salt  be  at  hand,  wet  the  hair  with  brine  ; 
repeat  this  on  each  side  of  the  skin  two  or  three 
times,  at  intervals  of  twenty-four  hours. 

When  it  is  dry,  the  hair  must  be  rolled  in- 
wards, beginning  with  the  head  ;  and  care  must 
be  taken  to  put  a  layer  of  dried  grass  or  moss,  to 
hinder  the  friction  from  spoiling  the  hair  during 
the  conveyance.  If  the  passage  be  long,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  spread  the  skin  occasionally  in 
the  sun,  and  put  spirit  of  turpentine  or  petrolium 
on  such  places  as  the  insects  attack ;  for  want  of 
these  liquids,  you  may  use  a  decoction  of  very 
bitter  and  aromatic  herbs,  —  or  you  may  apply 
internally  and  externally,  pounded  tobacco,  pep- 
per, and  alspice. 

We  come  now  to  the  preservation  of  the  skin ; 
steep  it  in  the  liquid  as  directed  in  page  89; 
when  taken  out,  squeeze  it  to  force  out  the  most 
of  the  liquid,  but  take  care  not  to  stretch  any 
part ;  give  the  whole  hide  and  skull  a  good  coat 
of  preservative  ;  furnish  the  legs  with  wires,  as 
before  directed  of  birds  ;  stuff  every  part,  and 
your  subject  is  ready  to  be  finally  mounted. 

After  what  we  have  said  of  preparing  birds, 
the  reader  will  understand  in  a  general  way  how 
the  quadruped  should  be  provided  with  internal 


116         PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 

supporters  ;  but  the  operator  must  be  left  to  his 
own  taste  and  ingenuity;  one  thing  must  be  re- 
marked,—  the  skin  of  the  neck  is  always  longer 
than  the  neck  itself,  an  arrangement  designed  by 
nature  to  allow  the  animal  to  raise  and  lower  the 
head  without  too  much  stretching  the  skin  ;  the 
operator  will  bear  this  peculiarity  in  mind,  and 
not  make  the  neck  too  long  when  stuffed. 

If  any  part  be  squeezed  out  of  shape  in  sew- 
ing up,  raise  up  the  stuffing  by  piercing  through 
the  hide.  Take  care  that  the  eyelids  do  not  get 
out  of  shape  ;  stuff  the  orbits  with  cotton  while 
they  are  drying ;  stuff  also  the  nostrils  for  the 
same  purpose,  and  set  the  ears  in  position  ;  put 
in  the  artificial  eyes,  or  wait  till  after  drying  for 
this  purpose ;  they  are  to  be  glued  in  with  gum ; 
dry  him  in  an  airy  place,  but  in  the  shade. 

Nothing  now  remains  but  to  give  your  animal 
an  appropriate  attitude, —  and  here  the  operator 
has  an  occasion  for  displaying  his  taste,  and  the 
results  of  his  observation  of  living  nature  ;  the 
subject  should  exhibit  that  sort  of  grace  peculiar 
to  his  species,  and  the  air  of  animation  which 
presents  a  counterfeit  of  life. 

Remedies  for  Occasional  Difficulties. 

1.  Some  animals  have  upon  the  abdomen  a 
singular  sort  of  membrane,  which  is  the  charac- 


PRACTICAL  NATURALIST.         117 

teristic  of  the  species ;  such  are  the  opossum  and 
kanguroo ;  the  pouches  of  these  animals  must  not 
be  cut,  —  they  should  therefore  be  opened  on  the 
back  ;  the  membranes  should  be  stretched  out 
with  pasteboard  or  stuffing  till  dry. 

2.  Horns  will  sometimes  produce  embarrass- 
ment ;  when  a  horn  is  covered  with  the  skin  and 
hair,   as  that  of  the  giraffe,  saw  it  off  from  the 
skull,  and  let  it  go  with  the  hide, — you  may  re- 
place it  when  you  come  to  the  stuffing ;  but  if  the 
horn  be  in  substance  like  that  of  an  ox,  cut  the 
hide  around  the  roots  of  the  horns,  and  leave  the 
latter  on  the  skull. 

3.  Some  ferocious  animals  make  a  striking  ap- 
pearance with  the  mouth  open ;   for  these   you 
may  manufacture  the  tongue,  and  other  interior 
parts,  from  mastic  ;  when  the  mastic  is  dry,  give 
it  a  coat  of  transparent  spirit  of  wine  varnish,  and 
you  will  have  a  perfect  resemblance  of  nature. 

4.  Animals  with  a  close,  short,  smooth  fur,  pre- 
sent an  almost  insurmountable  difficulty  to  those 
who  are   ignorant  of  the  method  of  producing 
those  variations  in  the  surface  of  the  skin,  which 
are  caused  by  the  muscles  and  tendons, — par- 
ticularly those  of  the  legs.     In  nearly  all  quad- 
rupeds, the  tendo  dichillis*  is  very  prominent, 
and  almost  detached  from  the  limb, — thus  giving 

*  The  ligament  of  the  heel,  which  moves  the  foot. 


118        PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 

grace  and  agility  to  the  movements  of  the  ani- 
mal ;  if  the  leg  be  stuffed  withqut  attending  to 
this  fact,  its  shape  will  be  spoiled ;  the  proper 
method  is  this:  —  we  directed  to  spare  the  liga- 
tures of  the  joints,  in  removing  the  flesh,  &c, 
from  the  leg  bones ;  the  tendo  Achillis  passes  up 
the  back  of  the  leg ;  to  make  it  prominent  under 
the  skin,w7ind  packthread  around  its  whole  length, 
till  you  have  got  it  of  the  proper  size ;  if  this 
operation  be  not  sufficient,  draw  the  skin  in  on 
each  side  of  the  leg,  by  sewing  it  through  and 
through  between  the  bone  and  the  tendon.  Lest 
the  purpose  and  operation  of  the  above  process 
should  be  misunderstood,  the  reader  is  desired 
to  look  at  the  leg  of  a  living  quadruped,  and 
notice  that  it  is  not  completely  round, — but 
flattened  or  grooved  on  the  sides,  and  approach- 
ing to  something  like  an  edge  on  the  back;  this 
should  be  imitated  as  nearly  as  possible,  by  the 
means  above  specified. 

Other  inequalities  in  the  surface  of  the  skin, 
are  to  be  effected  in  the  same  manner.  Sew  the 
skin  through  and  through,  and  draw  the  thread 
till  you  have  made  a  proper  cavity  in  the 
surface. 

5.  Such  animals  as  bats,  flying-squirrels,  and 
the  like,  should  be  well  steeped ;  they  may  be 
dried  by  stretching  out  upon  pasteboard ;  when 


PRACTICAL  NATURALIST.         119 

dry,  give  the  membranes  a  good  coat  of  spirit 
of  turpentine.* 


ELEPHANTS. 

The  following  is  the  description  of  the  manner 
in  which  an  elephant,  now  in  the  Museum  of 
Natural  History  at  Paris  was  prepared. 

'  The  corpse  of  the  elephant  having  been  ex- 
tended upon  the  ground,  facilitated  our  taking 
its  dimensions  ;  the  thickness  was  taken  by  a 
sort  of  rule,  which  M.  Lassaigne,  cabinet-maker 
of  the  Museum,  invented  at  the  time ;  this  in- 
strument resembled  the  rule  used  by  shoemakers, 
on  a  large  scale.  The  curves  of  the  back,  belly, 
&c,  were  taken  by  bars  of  lead  three-quarters  of 
an  inch  thick  ;  this  metal,  not  having  any  elas- 
ticity, accommodated  itself  to  the  curves  we 
wished  to  measure.  M.  Desmoulins  drew  the 
animal  on  one  side  of  the  wall,  according  to  all 
these  measurements,  in  the  workshop  where  the 
model  was  to  be  constructed  in  its  natural  size. 
This  done,  we  proceeded  to  the  skinning  of  the 

*  The  reader  need  not  be  discouraged  by  the  length  and 
minuteness  of  any  of  our  directions;  a  little  practice  will  enable 
him  to  prepare  and  mount  any  quadruped  of  ordinary  size  in 
four  or  five  hours,  and  a  bird  in  one. 


120         PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 

elephant,  which  we  were  only  able  to  place  upon 
its  backby  means  of  four-corded  pulleys  fastened 
to  the  platform.  In  this  position,  we  made  an 
incision  in  the  form  of  a  double-cross ;  the  middle 
line  went  from  the  mouth  to  the  anus  ;  the  two 
others  were  directed  from  each  left-foot  to  the 
opposite  right-foot ;  the  tail  and  trunk  were  opened 
underneath,  longitudinally.  We  scooped  out  the 
soles  of  the  feet  within  an  inch  of  their  edge, 
that  the  nails  might  remain  in  the  skin ;  to  effect 
which,  we  were  obliged  to  employ  the  chisel  and 
the  mallet.  This  operation  was  very  difficult. 

f  After  four  days'  labour  of  several  persons,  we 
separated  the  skin  from  the  body;  it  then  weighed 
576  pounds.  We  extended  it  on  the  ground,  to 
take  away  the  cutaneous  muscles  which  adhered 
to  its  interior,  particularly  to  the  head.  In  this 
state,  the  skin  was  placed  in  a  large  tub  ;  we 
spread  a  considerable  quantity  of  pounded  alum 
in  all  the  folds  ;  we  then  boiled  alum-water  per- 
fectly saturated,  and  poured  it  upon  the  skin  till 
it  was  covered  six  inches  deep. 

f  To  render  the  dimensions  of  the  model  which 
was  to  receive  the  skin  more  exact,  we  modelled 
one-half  of  the  skinned  head  in  plaster, — as  well 
as  one  of  the  hind  and  fore  legs. 

1  Lassaigne  then  constructed  a  factitious  body, 
of  linden-wood ;  this  was  done  in  such  a  manner, 
that  all  the  parts  could  be  separated.  He  opened 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  121 

a  pannel,  and  introduced  himself  inside  by  means 
of  this  opening, —  either  to  diminish  the  thick- 
ness of  the  wood,  or  for  any  other  purpose.  The 
head,  the  trunk, —  all  was  hollow;  —  so  that  the 
body,  alarming  at  first  from  its  supposed  weight, 
might  be  easily  transported  from  one  place  to 
another. 

4  The  sides  of  this  model  are  hardly  more  than 
an  inch  thick.  The  folds  or  wrinkles  of  the  skin 
were  adjusted  after  a  beautiful  little  cast  belong- 
ing to  M.  Cuvier. 

'After  taking  the  alum-water  from  the  tub 
where  the  skin  was  placed,  we  heated  it  and 
poured  it  boiling  on  the  skin  ;  we  left  it  an  hour 
and  a  half  in  this  state,  after  which  we  drew  the 
skin  out,  to  place  it  quite  warm  upon  the  shape. 
This  was  not  an  easy  thing,  but  it  was  rendered 
still  more  difficult  by  our  finding  the  false  body 
a  little  too  large ;  the  skin  would  not  entirely 
cover  it,  and  there  was  but  one  thing  which 
could  be  done;  we  could  not  diminish  the  wood, 
without  destroying  the  proportions.  We  then 
took  down  the  skin,  placed  it  on  tressles,  and 
diminished  the  thickness  of  it  by  means  of  large 
knives,  cutting  it  away  in  thick  and  long  shreds 
from  the  whole  of  the  inside ;  this  work  occupied 
five  persons  for  four  days.  We  weighed  these 
shreds,  and  they  amounted  to  194  pounds.  Dur- 
ing this  operation  the  skin  had  dried,  and  conse- 
11 


122         PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 

quently  lost  its  suppleness.  We  put  it  back  into 
a  tub,  and  covered  it  with  soft,  cold  water;  the 
next  day  we  placed  it  afresh  on  the  shape,  and 
fixed  it  with  wire,  nails,  and  large  brads;  those 
which  fixed  the  edge  of  the  skin,  were  driven  in 
deeply;  the  others  only  half-way,  to  accommo- 
date the  skin  to  all  the  sinuosities  of  the  model. 
We  drew  out  a  great  many  of  them,  when  the 
skin  was  sufficiently  dry. 

'This  paring  of  the  skin  answered  our  purpose 
in  two  essential  points;  first,  by  facilitating  the 
means  of  enveloping  the  model  entirely, — the 
form  of  which  had  not  been  altered;  and  se- 
condly, by  ensuring  its  speedy  desiccation.  This 
last  had  not  been  the  least  alarming,  for  we 
feared  that  the  humidity  secreted  in  the  skin 
might  concentrate  in  such  a  manner  (notwith- 
standing we  had  taken  the  precaution  to  give  the 
wooden  model  a  coat  of  paint),  as  to  occasion 
mouldiness  in  the  parts  exposed  to  the  air.  The 
alum  with  which  it  was  saturated  soon  crystal- 
lized on  the  interior,  and  at  first  gave  it  a  very 
ugly  gray  colour;  but  we  entirely  got  rid  of  it. 
by  rubbing  the  surface  of  the  skin,  first  with 
spirit  of  turpentine,  and  then  with  olive-oil. 
Thus  the  appearance  of  life  was  given  to  one  of 
the  largest  animals  on  earth  ;  and  which  till  then 
had  only  figured  in  our  museums  as  a  hideous 
mass,  devoid  of  alljresemblance  to  nature.' 


PRACTICAL  NATURALIST.         123 

The  camelopard,  the  couaga,  the  condoma,  (a 
species  of  antelope,)  which  are  in  the  gallery  of 
the  Paris  Museum,  have  been  mounted  in  this 
manner,  which  serves  for  most  large  animals. 


HEDGEHOGS. 

These  are  mounted  in  the  usual  way ;  but  as 
they  have  the  habit  of  forming  themselves  into 
a  ball,  by  drawing  in  all  their  extremities,  it  is 
necessary  to  know  how  to  give  them  that  atti- 
tude. When  the  hedgehog  is  skinned,  lay  on 
the  preservative,  and  stuff  it  a  little  less  than 
usual  to  insure  its  bending  ;  sew  it  up  without 
putting  in  any  wires,  and  it  will  be  sufficient  to 
draw  the  head  and  fore-feet  together  under  the 
middle  of  the  belly.  Then,  to  preserve  this 
form,  place  him  on  his  back  in  the  midst  of  a 
large  cloth,  the  four  corners  of  which  tie  strongly 
together,  and  hang  it  in  the  air  to  dry 


FISHES.      v 

Where  there  are  scales,  the  skin  should  not  be 
turned  when  taken  off,  lest  the  scales  become 
detached.  Cut  off  the  head,  at  the  first  joint  of 
the  back-bone  ;  the  head  need  not  be  skinned, 


124         PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 

but  emptied  by  the  occipital  opening  and  gills. 
Take  out  the  eyes  ;  keep  the  fins  in  position 
between  pieces  of  cork  or  pasteboard  ;  give  the 
skin,  day  by  day,  a  coat  of  spirit  of  turpentine, — 
which  will  hasten  its  drying,  and  preserve  the 
colours;  but  first  apply  the  preservative.  After 
stuffing,  furnishing  with  wires,  eyes,  &c,  and 
when  the  whole  is  quite  dry,  varnish  it.  The 
drying  must  be  done  in  the  dark,  as  the  light  will 
take  out  the  colours. 

The  most  effectual  way  of  preserving  fishes, 
with  a  view  to  the  study  of  natural  history,  is 
by  liquor.  Choose  always  the  small  ones,  where 
the  size  would  otherwise  be  incommodious.  A 
small  fish  is  as  perfect  a  specimen,  generally 
speaking,  as  one  of  the  largest  size.  In  a  great 
number  of  specimens,  a  fish  will  be  complete, 
and  possess  every  organ  fully  developed,  before 
he  attains  to  the  fiftieth  part  of  his  growth. 

The  only  precaution  necessary  before  putting 
a  fish  in  liquid,  is  to  wash  the  skin  in  fresh  wa- 
ter, and  rub  it  with  a  soft  brush  to  remove  the 
mucosity. 


PRACTICAL  NATURALIST.          125 


SEALS. 

These  amphibious  animals  have  a  very  thick 
skin,  which  must  be  diminished  by  taking  away 
as  much  as  possible  of  the  fat ;  the  preservative 
should  be  plentifully  applied.  They  are  always 
placed  on  the  belly ;  put  some  spirit  of  turpen- 
tine on  the  naked  parts  of  the  fins. 

The  Porpoise  and  Dolphin  have  sometimes 
two  or  three  inches  of  fat  under  the  skin,  which 
it  is  difficult  to  take  away  entirely  at  the  first 
trial.  Renew  the  operation  several  times,  and 
scrape  away  as  much  as  possible  with  the  knife. 

To  soak  up  the  oil,  which  flows  continually, 
cover  the  parts  with  plaster  or  bran. 

The  porpoise  will  require  no  iron-work  in  the 
mounting  ;  a  stick,  the  length  of  the  body,  and 
entering  a  little  way  into  the  skull,  will  be  suffi- 
cient. Stuff  him  very  close,  that  the  skin  may 
be  well  stretched.  Leave  the  mouth  open  to 
show  the  teeth;  which  in  this  genus  are  very 
beautiful,  and  arranged  with  admirable  sym- 
metry. 

If  the  fat  penetrate  and  spot  the  skin,  at  any 

time    afterwards,  —  take    ground    pumice-stone, 

mixed  with  olive-oil,  and  rub  it  on  with  a  brush ; 

repeat  this,  with  the  addition  of  emery ;  when 

11* 


126         PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 

the  skin  begins  to  shine,  rub  and  polish  it  dry 
with  a  woollen  cloth. 


TORTOISES. 

As  soon  as  a  tortoise  is  dead,  take  the  body 
out  of  the  shell;  for  if  you  wait  till  it  be  cold, 
you  will  find  it  much  more  difficult.  The  upper 
and  under  shell  are  sometimes  united  by  a 
ligament,  sometimes  the  shell  is  entire  ;  in  the 
latter  case, you  must  saw  the  two  portions  apart; 
take  off  the  lower  shell,  and  remove  the  viscera 
of  the  breast  and  abdomen  ;  leave  the  head  and 
the  paws,  but  no  bones  in  the  latter ;  in  empty- 
ing the  skull,  do  not  widen  the  occipital  open- 
ing,— because  the  skin  lying  close  upon  the  bone 
will  show  every  inequality  in  it,  and  the  back 
of  the  head  would  be  deformed  were  any  part  of 
the  skull  removed  ;  apply  the  preservative  to 
both  skin  and  shell,  stuff  the  whole,  and  glue  or 
fasten  on  with  wire  the  lower  shell.  The  head 
may  be  furnished  with  a  wire,  but  the  other  limbs 
have  hardly  any  necessity  for  such  a  support. 
Give  the  whole  a  coat  of  varnish. 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  127 


FROGS, 

Open  the  mouth,  cut  the  first  vertebrae  of  the 
neck,  and  take  out  the  interior  of  the  mouth  with 
scissors ;  then  raise  up  both  jaws,  and  pushing 
back  the  skin  with  the  fingers  of  the  right-hand, 
and  drawing  the  body  in  the  contrary  direction 
with  the  other  hand,  you  will  easily  remove  the 
skin, —  making  the  body  come  out  at  the  mouth; 
put  the  feet  back  into  their  place  ;  no  pre- 
servative will  be  necessary.  Fill  the  skin  with 
fine  sand,  close  the  mouth,  and  place  it  on  a 
board, —  giving  it  the  attitude  peculiar  to  its  spe- 
cies; some  days  afterwards,  when  it  is  quite  dry, 
give  it  a  coat  of  varnish.  When  the  varnish  is 
hard,  bore  small  holes  under  the  belly, — through 
which  the  sand  will  escape  and  leave  the  body 
empty,  preserving  its  form. 

Frogs  lose  their  colour  in  drying ;  they  should 
be  dried  in  the  greatest  possible  haste,  and  in 
the  shade.  The  best  way  of  preserving  the  bril- 
liancy of  their  tints,  is  to  keep  them  in  spirit  of 
wine. 

Lizards  must  be  skinned  like  mammiferae  ; 
care  must  be  taken  that  the  scales  do  not  come 
off  in  turning  the  skin.  They  should  be  well 
varnished. 


128  PRACTICAL   NATURALIST. 

Snakes  are  skinned  whole;  begin  at  the  mouth, 
cut  round  between  the  skin  and  flesh  inside,  and 
strip  off  the  hide  by  turning  it  over.  When  the 
jaws  cannot  be  dilated  sufficiently  for  this,  make 
a  longitudinal  incision  at  the  belly,  take  out  the 
viscera,  cut  the  body  in  two,  leaving  the  skin 
whole;  then  strip  the  two  portions  separate,  by 
turning  the  skin  from  the  incision  to  the  head  and 
tail.  Give  the  skin  a  coat  of  preservative,  then 
of  spirit  of  turpentine,  and  lastly  of  varnish. 

When  reptiles  of  any  sort  are  preserved  in 
liquid,  the  phial  should  be  hermetically  sealed  to 
prevent  evaporation.  The  best  method  is  that 
of  M.  Peron,  which  consists  in  using  a  cork 
stopple,  and  the  following  cement:  — 

Rosin," 

Red  Ochre — ground  fine, 

Yellow  Wax, 

Spirit  of  Turpentine. 

Melt  the  wax  and  rosin  together,  add  the 
ochre  portion  by  portion,  stirring  it  in  with  a 
spatula  ;  after  boiling  seven  or  eight  minutes, 
add  the  spirit  of  turpentine,  and  continue  boil- 
ing. 

We  have  in  another  part  of  the  work  given 
additional  directions  respecting  the  preservation 
of  reptiles  in  liquid ;  to  those  we  now  refer  the 
reader. 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  129 


CRUSTACEOUS    ANIMALS. 

This  part  will  require  few  details.  In  very 
large  subjects,  the  soft  parts  are  removed  in  the 
common  way.  Those  no  larger  than  a  crab,  you 
may  throw  into  lime-water  for  two  hours;  then 
dry  and  varnish  them. 


INSECTS. 

You  may  kill  an  insect  by  a  little  spirit  of 
turpentine,  but  this  must  not  be  applied  when 
there  is  any  thing  to  be  spoiled  by  it ;  such  as 
hair,  scales,  coloured  dust  —  like  that  of  the 
wings  of  butterflies,  &c.  An  insect  dead  and 
dry  for  some  time,  may  be  softened  and  put  into 
a  good  shape,  by  confining  him  in  a  tight  vessel, 
along  with  damp  cotton  or  sand. 

Butterflies.  Various  methods  for  preserving 
these  beautiful  creatures  will  occur  to  the  reader, 
and  need  not  be  specified.  A  good  way  of  keep- 
ing them  in  books,  is  the  following: — Dissolve 
very  white  and  clean  gum  in  distilled  water, add- 
ing a  little  salt;  spread  this  upon  very  fine  paper 
of  a  proper  thickness  ;  cut  off  the  wings  of  a 
butterfly  that  has  been  moistened  two  or  three 


130  PRACTICAL     NATURALIST. 

days;  place  these  upon  the  paper,  leaving  space 
between  them  for  the  body ;  cover  and  press 
them  tightly,  then  take  off  the  wings  carefully  ; 
the  brilliant  dust  will  remain  attached  to  the  pa- 
per, and  you  will  have  a  beautiful  fac-simile  of 
the  wings ;  to  which  you  may  add  the  body  by 
painting. 

It  is  usual  to  put  two  specimens  of  each  spe- 
cies of  the  butterfly  kind  into  the  cabinet;  one 
to  display  the  upper,  and  the  other  the  under 
side ;  the  under-side  is  much  more  beautiful  in 
most  species,  and  differs  entirely  in  appear- 
ance from  the  upper-side. 

Caterpillars  may  be  kept  in  perfect  preserva- 
tion in  the  following  liquid :  — 

Alcohol,  12  oz 

Distilled  Water,  1  Ib 

Corrosive  Sublimate,  •     2  drs 

Burnt  Alum,  3  oz 

Macerate  for  twenty-four  hours  ;  when  used, 
add  one-third  of  water;  the  phials  should  be  one- 
third  larger  in  diameter  than  the  insect. 

The  nests  and  habitations  of  insects  may  be 
preserved  by  the  application  of  some  of  the 
liquids  already  mentioned. 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  131 


SHELLS. 

To  remove  the  live  inhabitant  of  a  shell,  plunge 
it  in  spirit  of  wine  for  a  few  moments,  and  you 
may  draw  out  the  body  with  a  needle  or  pincers. 
If  it  make  any  resistance,  .plunge  it  for  two  or 
three  minutes  in  boiling  water.  These  precau- 
tions are  very  necessary,  for  the  smallest  frag- 
ment of  the  body  remaining  will  spoil  the  shell. 

The  above  is  recommended  only  in  the  case  of 
univalves,  or  those  of  a  single  shell, — as  cockles; 
the  bivalves,  or  those  of  two  shells,  will  open  on 
being  exposed  a  few  minutes  to  the  sun, — when 
you  may  easily^  remove  the  muscles  and  flesh 
with  a  knife.  They  should  not  be  put  in  hot 
water,  as  the  ligament  which  serves  the  shell  for 
a  hinge  may  be  loosened. 

Those  of  the  multivalvular  tribe  are  more  diffi- 
cult to  manage ;  the  best  way  is  to  dry  up  the 
flesh,  and  steep  the  shells  in  Smith's  liquid  to 
keep  away  insects. 

Stains,  or  incrustations  of  foreign  matter  upon 
a  shell,  may  be  removed  by  warm  ley,  or  diluted 
aqua-fortis.  When  rough,  they  may  be  polished 
with  emery. 


132         PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 


PLANTS. 

As  soon  as  you  have  well  dried  a  plant,  lay  it 
upon  a  sheet  of  brown,  unsized  paper;  adjust 
perfectly  all  its  parts, and  press  it  lightly;  change 
the  paper  every  day  till  every  particle  of  humid- 
ity be  absorbed,  when  you  may  press  it  as  tight- 
ly as  possible ;  after  this,  apply  Smith's  liquid 
to  every  part, — when  you  may  dry  it  finally  in 
the  air. 

Some  plants  have  so  powerful  a  vegetating 
quality,  that  they  revive  after  drying  ;  plunge 
these  a  minute  or  two  in  boiling  water.  Plants 
are  best  kept  between  the  leaves  of  an  herbal. 


SKELETONS. 

All  the  efforts  of  man  to  restore  the  skin  of 
his  own  species  to  its  natural  form  and  beauty, 
have  been  hitherto  fruitless; — the  trials  for  this 
purpose  have  only  produced  mis-shapen,  hideous 
objects,  and  so  unlike  nature,  that  they  have 
never  found  a  place  in  our  collections.  We  have 
only  some  parts  of  man,  either  dried  or  preserved 
in  spirit  of  wine,  sufficiently  entire  to  be  recog- 
nised. In  several  museums  we  see  human  heads 
injected,  and  preserved  in  oil  of  turpentine.  The 
anatomical  collection  of  the  Museum  of  Natural 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  133 

History  in  Paris,  possesses  a  head  prepared  in 
this  way  more  than  a  hundred  years  ago,  by  the 
celebrated  Ruysch,  a  Dutch  physician.  It  still 
preserves  all  the  vivacity  of  its  colours ;  the  cold 
so  far  affects  the  liquor  in  which  it  is  contained, 
as  to  hide  it  completely;  but  at  the  return  of 
spring,  the  liquor  becomes  clear,  and  we  distin- 
guish the  object  perfectly. 

Anatomists  distinguish  two  sorts  of  skeletons, — 
one  which  they  call  natural,  and  the  other  arti- 
ficial. 

Natural  Skeletons.  This  sort  is  the  most  ge- 
neral, and  the  easiest  to  prepare.  It  is  particu- 
larly employed  for  small  animals ;  that  is  to  say, 
of  the  size  of  a  fox.  Skin  the  animal,  take  away 
the  flesh,  separating  the  head  only  to  take  out 
the  brains  more  easily  by  the  occipital  hole. 
The  flesh  removed,  put  the  skeleton  to  macerate 
in  water  with  a  little  quick-lime  added,  which  has 
the  property  of  whitening  bones.  After  twro  or 
three  days,  extend  the  skeleton  on  a  table,  and 
scrape  off  with  a  knife  the  remainder  of  the  flesh. 
If  the  solid  parts  adhere  too  much,  put  it  again 
to  macerate  till  the  bones  are  completely  cleaned; 
taking  the  precaution  to  preserve  all  the  liga- 
ments which  keep  the  bones  together.  These 
ligaments  acquire  much  consistence  when  dry, 
12 


134  PRACTICAL     NATURALIST. 

and  are  sufficient  to  keep  the  skeleton  upright, 
when  it  is  a  small  animal. 

Where  the  ligatures  are  not  sufficient,  they 
should  be  strengthened  with  wires ;  and  the 
whole  skeleton  must  be  sustained  with  stout 
wire  props. 

Artificial  Skeletons.  The  skeletons  of  men-, 
and  animals  of  middling  size,  cannot  be  set  up  in 
the  manner  last  described.  Begin  in  the  same 
way,  by  taking  off  as  much  of  the  flesh  as  possi- 
ble; but  separate  all  the  bones  at  the  joints,  be- 
fore putting  to  macerate ;  they  should  remain 
longer  in  the  water,  on  account  of  their  greater 
size.  Renew  the  scraping  until  they  are  per- 
fectly cleaned  ;  then  expose  them  to  the  sun  to 
whiten,  and  turn  them  every  day.  Bore  every 
bone  at  the  joint,  and  fasten  them  together  with 
wires, — leaving  a  little  play  at  the  articulations. 

Wire  is  insufficient  for  large  animals,  as  the 
horse,  camel,  and  elephant;  for  these  you  must 
use  plates  of  iron,  with  screws. 

As  these  vast  frames  are  more  often  set  up  for 
instruction  than  the  gratification  of  mere  curiosi- 
ty, it  is  customary  to  saw  the  head  longitudinally 
in  two,  except  the  under-jaw ;  the  reunion  of  the 
parts  is  effected  by  a  hinge,  which  permits  them 
to  be  opened  at  pleasure,  for  the  study  of  the 
interior  of  the  head. 


PRACTICAL  NATURALIST.         135 


OF  EMBALMING. 

-Egyptian Method.*  The  Egyptians  had  three 
methods  of  embalming  their  dead.  The  first, 
which  was  confined  to  the  poorer  classes,  con- 
sisted in  cleaning  the  corpse  with  water,  inject- 
ing it  with  oil  of  cedar  (probably  the  essence  of 
turpentine),  and  preserving  it  in  salt.  It  was 
then  kept  sixty  days  for  drying,  after  which  it 
was  deposited  in  the  tomb. 

When  the  relatives  of  the  defunct  were  rich 
enough  to  pay  twenty  minse  (about  one  hundred 
dollars  of  our  money,)  to  the  public  officers 
charged  with  the  duty  of  embalming  the  dead, 
the  body  was  taken  four  days  after  decease;  — 
they  began  by  cleansing  the  body;  then,  by 
means  of  a  syringe,  they  injected  oil  of  cedar 
within,  but  made  no  incision  in  the  body  ;  this 
sufficed  for  the  decomposition  of  the  entrails. 
It  was  then  salted  with  nitre,  and  left  for  sixty 
days;  after  which,  the  decomposed  viscera  were 
taken  out,  and  the  space  filled  up  with  nitre. 

*  Besides  the  Egyptians,  it  appears  that  the  ancient  Gauls 
were  in  possession  of  some  art  of  this  sort,  now  unknown  to 
us.  There  has  been  found  in  the  mountains  of  Auvergne,  a 
body  in  perfect  preservation,  embalmed  in  the  Egyptian  man- 
ner. It  is  now  in  the  Cabinet  of  Comparative  Anatomy,  at  the 
Jardin  dcs  Plantes  in  Paris. 


136  PRACTICAL    NATURALIST, 

The  relations  then  took  charge  of  the  body,  and 
completed  the  desiccation. 

The  third  method  was  employed  upon  sacred 
animals,  princes,  and  persons  sufficiently  wealthy 
to  pay  a  talent  (five  hundred  dollars)  to  the  em- 
balmers.  The  relatives  of  the  dead  entrusted 
the  body  to  the  public  officers  for  seventy  days, 
on  common  occasions ;  but  during  an  inundation 
of  the  Nile,  it  was  customary  to  wait  till  the  river 
had  subsided.  One  of  the  officers  took  the  body, 
arid  extending  it  upon  the  ground,  marked  a  spot 
for  incision  in  the  left  side ;  another  cut  the  open- 
ing with  a  sharp  Ethiopian  stone, — and  immedi- 
ately taking  to  flight,  was  pursued  by  the  people 
with  loud  curses  and  volleys  of  stones. 

Others  then  by  the  help  of  irons  drew  out  the 
brains  at  the  nostrils  and  an  opening  in  the  eye, 
filling  up  the  cavity  with  aromatic  drugs.  From 
the  incision  in  the  side  they  took  away  the  vis- 
cera, and  cleansed  the  cavities  with  palm-wine ; 
they  then  filled  up  the  body  with  myrrh,  cin- 
namon, and  a  variety  of  other  drugs,  but  were 
careful  not  to  make  use  of  incense;  the  body  was 
then  sewed  up,  and  covered  entirely  with  natron 
for  seventy  days;  —  the  natron  must  have  been 
a  fixed  alkali,  and  not  nitre  as  some  have  as- 
serted. 

After  this,  the  body  was  carefully  washed,  and 
every  cavity  filled  anew  with  drugs,  aromatics, 


PRACTICAL  NATURALIST.         137 

bitumens,  and  resinous  matter.  Before  sewing 
up,  several  articles  were  introduced  into  the 
body,  as  amulets,  or  superstitious  tokens ;  these 
were  —  a  little  bronze  statue,  with  the  legs  joined, 
the  hands  crossed  over  the  breast,  a  hood  upon 
the  head,  and  covered  with  hieroglyphics, —  a 
book,  medals,  small  vases,  &c. 

Thus  prepared,  a  piece  of  money  was  put  in 
the  mouth,  the  nails  and  teeth  were  gilded,  and 
the  whole  body  received  a  thick  coat  of  Judean 
bitumen,  dissolved  in  oil  of  cedar  ;  it  was  then 
wrapped  in  several  bandages  of  linen  cloth  ; 
after  this,  a  second  coat  of  the  bitumen  was 
applied,  and  then  additional  bandages, —  pro- 
ceeding thus  till  the  whole  had  reached  a  suffi- 
cient size.  It  was  then  covered  with  amulets 
and  bands  of  gummed  cloth,  upon  which  hiero- 
glyphics were  painted. 

Embalming  Birds.  There  are  some  advan- 
tages attending  this  method  of  preservation, — 
the  skeleton  is  saved,  and  may  serve  for  anatom- 
ical study  when  the  bird  is  destroyed  by  time  or 
the  insects.  Place  the  bird  upon  the  back,  and 
make  an  incision  from  the  neck  down  ;  skin  right 
and  left  as  far  as  you  can,  without  cutting  the 
joints  of  the  wings  or  legs ;  take  away  the  entrails, 
the  muscles,  and  all  soft  parts,  but  spare  the  liga 
ments  of  the  joints.  Extract  the  eyes  carefully, 
12* 


138          PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 

that  the  vitreous  humour  may  not  soil  the  feath- 
ers ;  then  by  one  of  the  sockets  draw  out  the 
brain  with  an  ear-picker.  Remove  from  the 
bill  all  soft  parts,  as  the  tongue,  larynx,  &c;  hi 
fine,  make  the  bird  a  skeleton  in  all  respects  but 
the  skin.  Then  apply  the  preservative  in  all 
parts,  and  arrange  the  wires  to  keep  him  in 
position. 

This  done,  sprinkle  upon  all  parts  the  powder 
mentioned  in  page  88 ;  the  whole  bird  should  be 
covered  with  it.  Stuff  chopped  cotton  into  the 
cavity  of  the  brain,  and  any  proper  material  into 
the  body  ;  then  sew  up,  and  arrange  the  eyes, 
&c. 

The  above  practice, however, is  little  pursued; 
it  is  more  tedious  and  difficult  than  the  common 
method.  The  preservation  of  the  skeleton  has 
not  been  thought  an  objfct  sufficient  to  compen- 
sate for  the  additional  labour. 


METHOD    OF    MAKING    ARTIFICIAL    EYES. 

The  eyes  of  animals  being  the  organs  by  which 
they  best  express  their  dispositions,  they  demand 
the  particular  care  of  the  naturalist.  The  instru- 
ments necessary  for  their  fabrication  are  —  an 
enameller's  table,  blow-pipe,  lamp,  round  pincers 
about  six  inches  long,  which  close  by  means  of 


PRACTICAL  NATURALIST.          139 

a  ring,  and  which  hold  the  iron  wire  forming  the 
means  of  support;  another  flat  pair  of  pincers  of 
the  same  length,  which  serve  to  handle  the  ena- 
mel when  necessary,  and  at  the  same  time  to  stir 
up  the  lamp. 

The  materials  are — an  assortment  of  small 
cylinders  of  enamel  of  all  colours,  and  clippings 
or  fragments  of  looking-glasses  which  you  melt 
by  the  lamp  into  a  sort  of  small  cylinder  like  the 
enamel  before  using  it.  Take  care  in  melting  these 
pieces  of  glass,  to  free  them  from  all  spots  and 
globules  of  air.  When  furnished  with  every 
thing  put  the  table  in  an  obscure  place,  that  the 
light  from  elsewhere  may  not  overpower  that  of 
the  lamp.  The  lamp  well  lighted,  direct  the 
blow-pipe  toward  the  middle  of  the  wick,  which 
scatter  a  little  in  that  part  and  procure  a  clear 
bluish  flame,  to  which  you  will  expose  the  ena- 
mel you  wish  to  melt.  If  this  flame  be  not  clear 
and  lively,  the  colours  of  the  enamel  are  apt  to 
change,  and  the  operation  fails.  Practice  alone 
teaches  the  proper  degree  of  flame ;  but  it  is 
generally  better  to  expose  the  enamel  to  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  jet  of  the  flame, — where  it  never 
burns,  and  frequently  melts  more  easily  than  in 
the  centre. 

Small  eyes  being  the  least  difficult,  you  should 
begin  upon  them.  For  these,  take  a  small  iron 
wire  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length,  and  hold  one  of 


140         PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 

the  extremities  in  the  round  pincers,  whilst  you 
approach  the  other  to  the  fire, — to  which  expose 
at  the  same  time,  the  enamel  of  the  colour  you 
\yish  to  make  the  eye,  turning  it  between  the  fin- 
gers until  it  begins  to  melt ;  then  fasten  the  quan- 
tity necessary  for  the  size  of  the  eye  to  the  end 
of  the  wire, — it  will  form  a  little  globe  on  being 
turned  in  the  flame  ;  when  it  is  well  rounded, 
place  in  the  centre  a  little  speck  of  black  enamel, 
to  form  the  pupil.  Again  expose  it  to  the  fire, 
that  this  pupil  may  be  incorporated  with  the 
mass, —  and  when  it  is  well  incrusted,  put  some 
glass  upon  it,  which  should  extend  at  least  over 
three-quarters  of  the  hemisphere;  it  is  this  glass, 
which  by  representing  the  vitreous  humour  of 
the  eye,  gives  it  all  its  brilliancy. 

Continue  to  expose  the  eye  to  the  fire,  until 
the  glass  has  equally  extended  over  that  part  of 
it  which  is  to  form  the  iris  ;  this  done,  let  it  cool 
slowly. 

Eyes  of  the  largest  size  should  be  blown. 
Take  a  pipe  of  baked  earth,  or  a  tube  of  glass, 
from  6  to  7  inches  long ;  to  the  end  of  this  put  a 
little  white  enamel,  which  present  to  the  fire  in 
order  to  blow  it.  This  enamel  forms  a  globe, 
larger  or  smaller  according  to  the  air  you  intro- 
duce; the  globe  being  of  the  proper  size,  place  in 
the  middle,  and  perpendicularly  to  the  point  of 
the  pipe,  the  quantity  of  enamel  necessary  to 


PRACTICAL     NATURALIST.  141 

make  the  iris  ;  incorporate  the  second  enamel 
with  the  first,  by  presenting  it  to  the  fire, — tak- 
ing care  to  turn  the  pipe  with  the  fingers,  that 
the  enamel  may  spread  equally,  and  the  iris  be 
exactly  round.  If  the  iris  is  to  be  of  several 
colours,  as  for  example  that  of  man,  distribute  in 
diverging  rays  several  little  threads  of  suitable 
enamel  ;  present  the  eye  to  the  fire,  until  you 
have  incorporated  the  iris, — after  which  place 
the  pupil,  heat  it  in  the  same  way,  and  then  apply 
the  glass.  As  it  is  almost  impossible  that  the 
eye  should  not  sink  down  in  the  course  of  this 
operation,  and  that  the  air  introduced  should  not 
escape  as  much  by  the  heat  as  by  the  pressure 
used  above  in  applying  the  different  substances, 
take  care  from  time  to  time  to  introduce  it  afresh 
that  it  may  not  lose  its  form.  This  is  especially 
necessary  when  you  apply  the  glass,  and  it  is  ex- 
tended over  the  whole  surface  of  the  iris. 

After  having  given  the  eye  its  size  and  form, 
take  away  the  pipe  ;  to  do  which,  after  the  air 
has  been  introduced,  stop  the  entrance  of  the 
pipe  with  the  finger,  and  expose  the  back  part 
of  the  eye  to  the  fire, — and  the  air  contained  in 
the  globe,  and  ramified  by  the  pipe, comes  through 
at  the  place  where  the  fire  has  most  action.  Pro- 
long this  opening,  by  turning  the  point  of  the  flat 
pincers  or  an  iron  wire  all  round  the  pipe, — leave 
but  one  point  by  which  the  eye  remains  fixed ; 


142         PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 

warm  it  equally  all  over,  after  which  expose  it 
to  a  gentle  heat;  and  when  it  is  cold  again, sepa- 
rate it  from  the  pipe. 

For  very  small  eyes,  a  drop  of  black  sealing- 
wax  will  be  found  sufficient.  Glass  and  enamel 
eyes  of  all  sizes  are  sold  at  the  shops  in  London 
and  Paris. 


GENERAL  REMARKS  RESPECTING  THE  PRESERVA- 
TION OF  SUBJECTS  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Rooms  for  containing  these  objects  must  be 
perfectly  dry ;  they  may  face  east  or  west,  but 
never  south.  Nearly  all  preparations  are  subject 
to  discoloration  by  the  light  ;  the  cases  contain- 
ing them  should  therefore  bey  furnished  with  cur- 
tains and  shutters,  which  should  never  be  drawn 
except  when  necessary ;  a  ray  of  the  sun  must 
never  be  admitted.  In  damp  weather  a  stove  is 
requisite, — indeed  too  much  precaution  can  hard- 
ly be  taken  to  defend  every  thing  from  moisture  ; 
a  collection  of  animals  exposed  to  the  damp  for 
a  year,  is  ruined  beyond  reparation ;  a  collection 
of  plants  will  totally  spoil  by  dampness  in  a 
month, —  the  leaves  and  flowers  fade  and  become 
of  a  tobacco  colour,  long  before  any  other  trace 
of  humidity  is  discernible. 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  143 

Minerals  are  also  in  danger  from  dampness ; 
their  tendency  to  combine  with  the  gases  of  the 
atmosphere,  causes  speedy  oxidation  and  efflo- 
rescence. 

Dust  is  also  injurious,  and  should  be  carefully 
excluded  from  a  cabinet  by  making  every  joint 
and  opening  perfectly  tight, —  this  will  have  the 
additional  use  of  keeping  out  insects;  a.  good 
method  is  to  have  the  doors  listed,  or  lined  at 
the  joints  with  cloth  ;  this  however  must  be  of 
cotton  or  linen, — never  of  woollen, or  any  animal 
substance,  on  account  of  its  tendency  to  attract 
insects. 

Every  month,  particularly  in  the  spring,  a  col- 
lection should  undergo  a  thorough  examination  ; 
when  you  suspect  an  animal  to  be  attacked  by 
insects,  beat  it  with  a  stick  and  apply  Smith's 
liquid. 

When  reptiles  are  attacked  by  insects,  give 
them  a  plentiful  appliance  of  spirit  of  turpen- 
tine. 

When  flies  have  deposited  their  eggs  upon  the 
lips  of  a  quadruped,  apply  the  same. 

With  regard  to  those  kept  in  liquid,  you  have 
only  to  fill  it  up  as  fast  it  evaporates. 

Fishes  lose  their  colours  by  the  light  quicker 
than  any  other  subjects  ;  they  should  in  con- 
sequence be  kept  in  the  darkest  parts  of  a 
cabinet. 


144  PRACTICAL    NATURALIST. 

. 

Testaceous  subjects  require  occasionally  a  little 
spirit  of  turpentine  upon  the  ligaments  or  hinges 
of  the  shells. 

An  herbal  should  be  examined  every  month ; 
when  a  plant  or  flower  grows  of  a  darker  colour, 
it  requires  a  new  drying.  If  insects  make  their 
appearance,  use  Smith's  liquid. 

When  an  animal  is  attacked  by  insects,  you 
may  kill  them  by  the  heat  of  an  oven  ;  if  the 
animal  be  too  large  for  this,  fumigate  him  with 
sulphur  for  some  hours,  during  which  time  he 
should  be  tightly  covered  in :  you  may  do  this 
by  placing  him  under  a  wooden  box,  and  burning 
a  quantity  of  sulphur  underneath  in  an  earthen 
pan.  A  very  dry  time  is  absolutely  necessary 
for  this  operation ;  any  dampness  would  in  con- 
junction with  the  sulphur  seriously  injure  the  co- 
lours of  the  animal.  —  Remark,  that  this  treat- 
ment is  improper  for  birdsT 

Insects  are  kept  in  shallow  drawers,  or  more 
advantageously  as  regards  appearance,  in  frames 
covered  with  glass  ;  upon  the  floors  of  these  they 
are  stuck  with  pins  through  bits  of  cork  or  the 
pith  of  alder,  upon  which  they  rest.  When  you 
see  a  yellowish  dust  gathering  upon  an  insect, 
you  may  be  sure  he  is  attacked  ;  if  he  be  of  the 
coleopterous  tribe,  steep  him  for  a  few  hours  in 
Smith's  liquid  or  alcohol,  and  when  dry  apply  a 
coat  of  the  essence  of  wild  thyme;  —  a  piece  of 


PRACTICAL  NATURALIST.        145 

camphor  wrapped  in  a  cloth  has  the  same  effect, 
but  this  should  be  renewed  every  six  months. 


OF    GROUPING. 

By  this  term,  we  understand  the  arrangement 
of  two  or  more  subjects  together,  so  as  to  repre- 
sent an  action  ;  such  as  —  a  falcon  grasping  a 
dove  within  his  talons, —  a  partridge  covering 
her  brood  with  her  wings,  in  defending  them  from 
the  attacks  of  a  weasel  or  hawk, — a  pair  of  doves 
perching  and  billing  upon  a  rose-bush, —  a  mock- 
ing-bird essaying  a  vain  defence  against  the  fangs 
of  a  snake,  who  is  thrusting  his  head  into  her 
nest,  &c.  Compositions  of  this  sort  form  a  strik- 
ing and  interesting  kind  of  picture,  when  they  are 
arranged  with  taste  and  skill.  To  this  end,  the 
operator  should  be  able  to  bestow  upon  each  in- 
dividual, the  attitude  and  expression  fitted  to  de- 
note the  particular  emotion  which  he  is  imagined 
to  feel, —  as  rage,  grief,  ferocity,  love,  &c. 

Animals  have  passions  like  men,  and  though 
less  in  number,  they  are  more  energetic  ;  we 
shall  subjoin  a  short  extract  from  Boitard's  work, 
entitled  the  Cabinet  of  Natural  History,  in  de- 
scribing the  effects  of  some  of  the  passions,  as 
witnessed  in  a  few  individuals  of  the  feathered 
13 


146  PRACTICAL    NATURALIST. 

tribe  ;  in  this  he  refers  to  three  very  common 
and  well  known  species,  namely,  the  magpie,  the 
blackbird,  and  the  wren. 

'When  in  a  state  of  repose,  the  feathers  of  the 
magpie  on  the  upper  portion  of  the  body  are 
smoothed  flat  to  the  skin  ;  those  of  the  belly 
slightly  raised  from  it,  which  makes  them  a  little 
pendent ;  the  neck  drawn  in,  the  tail  parallel 
with  the  body  or  but  slightly  inclined,  and  the 
wings  fixed  in  their  pectoral  cavities:  when  in 
this  condition,  the  magpie  is  always  perched. 

'The  blackbird's  feathers  when  in  repose  are 
a  little  disordered,  the  neck  drawn  quite  into  the 
breast,  the  tail  somewhat  raised,  and  the  wings 
in  a  small  degree  pendent.  He  should  be 
perched. 

'The  feathers  of  the  wren  are  smooth,  and  the 
tail  parallel.  He  is  Always  perched. 

lln  action,  the  body  of  the  magpie  is  placed 
horizontally  ;  the  neck  stretched  out,  the  head 
turned  aside,  the  feathers  all  smooth,  and  the  tail 
raised  high ;  the  legs  are  placed  near  the  middle 
of  the  body,  and  the  wings  pendent ;  he  may  be 
placed  not  perching. 

'  The  blackbird's  feathers  are  disordered,  the 
neck  a  little  stretched,  the  head  straight  forward 
and  a  little  raised,  the  tail  set  high,  the  legs  bent 
as  if  unable  to  support  the  body,  and  the  wings 
very  pendent ;  he  may  be  placed  not  perching. 


PRACTICAL  NATURALIST.          147 

c  The  feathers  of  the  wren  are  smooth,  the  tail 
raised  to  a  vertical  position,  the  neck  considera- 
bly stretched,  the  bill  pointing  downward,  the 
wings  pendent,  the  legs  stretched  out,  and  the 
body  parallel  to  the  horizon. 

'When  a  bird  is  in  fear,  the  neck  is  stretched 
out,  the  feathers  flattened  very  smooth;  the  beak, 
the  body,  and  the  tail  in  the  same  line,  and  a  little 
hanging  forward  ;  the  forward  extremities  of  the 
wings  are  detached  from  the  body,  and  the  tips 
close  to  the  tail. 

To  give  a  bird  the  attitude  of  seizing  on  its 
prey,  stretch  the  legs,  open  the  claws,  bend 
down  the  neck  and  head,  raise  the  wings  high, 
about  three-quarters  open,  and  convex  above  ; 
the  tail  should  form  a  fan,  almost  perpendicu- 
lar, and  the  body  be  inclined  towards  the  prey. 

'  If  the  bird  be  flying,  the  tail  should  be  hori- 
zontal and  open,  the  neck  forward  and  a  little  on 
one  side,  the  claws  shut  and  pressed  against  the 
breast.  Suspend  it  to  the  ceiling  by  a  wire  or 
string. 

( In  the  transition  from  fear  to  anger,  the  body 
inclines  still  farther  forward;  the  beak  opens; 
the  pupils  of  the  eyes  draw  toward  each  other, 
and  give  the  bird  a  squinting  look  ;  the  feathers 
of  the  neck  ruffle  up, — those  of  the  lower 
parts  lie  flat ;  the  tail  rises,  and  spreads  in  an 
arch  ;  the  legs  bend ;  and  the  wings  are  thrust 


148         PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 

off  from  the  body — or  half  open,  and  rise  upon 
the  back.' 

The  operator  cannot  l>e  ignorant  of  various 
materials  necessary  for  composing  his  groups  ; 
still  there  are  many  things  in  so  general  use,  that 
we  shall  present  them  to  notice  here. 

The  branches  upon  which  birds  are  generally 
placed  in  cabinets,  are  gathered  upon  the  skirts 
of  woody  spots  ;  they  are  commonly  the  limbs  of 
plum-trees,  which  have  been  stunted  by  the  bite 
of  cattle,  and  become  covered  with  white  and 
yellow  lichens  ;  the  branch,  fixed  in  the  cabinet, 
is  adorned  with  artificial  flowers  and  leaves,  fast- 
ened on  with  wire.  To  imitate  the  various  sorts 
of  mosses,  lichens,  and  short  grasses,  it  is  custom- 
ary to  use  the  fine  shavings  of  horn  made  by  turn- 
ers ;  these  are  coloured  according  to  fancy,  and 
sifted  over  the- branch  —  which  has  previously 
been  coated  with  glue  or  paste.  An  imitation  of 
rock  is  effected  by  brown  pasteboard,  wetted  in 
thin  paste,  moulded  into  a  proper  shape,  and  cov- 
ered with  fine  sand.  Earth  is  imitated  with  sand, 
gravel,  coffee-grounds,  &c. 

Beyond  these  general  ideas,  the  operator  must 
be  left  to  the  guidance  of  his  own  taste  and  inge- 
nuity ;  groups  of  the  above  description*  possess 
value  both  for  use  and  ornament;  when  arranged 
with  skill  and  effect,  they  constitute  alike  objects 
of  scientific  study  and  elegant  taste. 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  149 


ON    THE    MANAGEMENT    OF    INSECTS. 

Insects  are  distinguished  from  other  animals  by 
the  wonderful  changes  that  all,  except  those  of 
the  seventh  class  (aptera),  pass  throdgh. 

Ancient  writers  were  not  acquainted  with  the 
transformations  of  insects,  as  appears  very  plainly 
by  the  erroneous  suppositions  generally  enter- 
tained; neither  was  the  mystery  entirely  explain- 
ed till  the  latter  end  of  the  last  century,  when 
Malpighi  and  Swammerdam  made  observations 
and  experiments  on  insects,  under  every  appear- 
ance,—  and  by  dissecting  them  just  preceding 
their  changes,  were  enabled  to  prove,  that  the 
moth  and  butterfly  grow  and  strengthen  them- 
selves, and  that  their  members  are  formed  and 
unfolded,  under  the  figure  of  the  insect  we  call 
caterpillar. 

The  succession  of  its  transformations  are, — 
the  larva  or  caterpillar  is  hatched  from  the  egg ; 
from  the  larva,  it  passes  into  the  pupa  or  chrysa- 
lis state  ;  from  the  pupa  or  chrysalis,  into  the 
imago  or  fly  state. 

The  Egg.     The  eggs  of  an  insect  are  always 
small,  compared  with  the  size  of  the  insect  itself; 
they  vary  in  number  and  figure  in  different  spe- 
13* 


150         PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 

cies ;  some  are  round, others  oval;  some  are  cy- 
lindrical, and  others  nearly  square;  the  shells  of 
some  are  hard  and  smooth,  while  others  are  soft 
and  flexible.  It  is  a  rule,  but  is  not  invariable, 
that  the  eggs  never  increase  in  size  after  they 
are  laid.  * 

They  are  found  of  almost  every  shade  of  co- 
lour, and  are  always  disposed  in  those  situations 
where  the  young  brood  may  find  a  convenient 
supply  of  proper  food ;  some  insects  deposit  their 
eggs  in  the  oak-leaf,  producing  there  the  red- 
gall  ;  others  cause  a  similar  appearance  on  the 
poplar-leaf;  and  the  red  protuberances  on  the 
willow-leaf,  and  the  termination  of  the  juniper 
branches,  are  produced  by  like  means ;  the  leaves 
of  some  plants  are  drawn  into  a  globular  head  by 
the  eggs  of  an  insect  lodged  therein;  —  and  many 
curious  circumstances  relative  to  this  economy 
might  be  noticed,  if  the  nature  of  our  plan  would 
permit. 

The  phryganea,  libellula,  gnat,  ephemera,  &c, 
hover  all  day  over  the  water  to  deposit  their 
eggs, — which  are  hatched  in  the  water,  and  re- 
main there  all  the  time  they  are  in  the  larva 
form.  Many  moths  cover  their  eggs  with  a  thick 
bed  of  hair  which  they  gather  from  their  bodies, 
and  others  cover  them  with  a  glutinous  composi- 
tion, which,  when  dry,  protects  them  from  moist- 
ure, rain,  and  cold;  and  the  wolf-spider  carefully 


PRACTICAL  NATURALIST.          151 
x 

preserves  its  eggs  in  a  silk  bag,  which  it  carries 
on  its  back  ;  by  some  moths  they  are  glued  with 
great  symmetry  round  the  smaller  branches  of 
trees,  or  are  secreted  beneath  the  bark,  and  fre- 
quently in  the  crevices  of  walls,  in  hollow  stalks, 


The  Caterpillar.  All  caterpillars  are  hatched 
from  the  egg,  and  when  they  first  proceed  from 
it  are  small  and  feeble,  but  their  strength  increases 
in  proportion  with  their  size  ;  a  distinguishing 
character  of  the  caterpillar  of  a  lepidopterous  in- 
sect is,  not  having  less  than  eight  nor  more  than 
sixteen  feet.  ' 

The  caterpillar,  whose  life  is  one  continued 
succession  of  changes,  moults  its  skin  several 
times  before  it  attains  its  full  growth  ;  those 
changes  are  the  more  singular,  as  it  is  not  simply 
the  skin  which  is  cast  off;  but  with  the  exuviae 
we  find  the  skull,  the  jaws,  and  all  the  exterior 
parts,  both  scaly  and  membranaceous,  which  com- 
pose the  lips,  antennae,  palpi,  —  and  even  those 
crustaceous  pieces  within  the  head,  which  serve 
as  a  fixed  basis  to  a  number  of  muscles,  &c. 

The  new  organs  are  under  the  old  ones,  as  in 
a  sheath  ;  so  that  the  caterpillar  effects  its  change 
ty  withdrawing  from  the  old  skin,  when  he  finds 
it  inadequate  to  its  bulk. 

Those   caterpillars  who  live   in  society,  and 


152  PRACTICAL    NATURALIST. 

have  a  nest,  retire  there  to  cast  their  exuviae, — 
fixing  the  hooks  of  their  feet  firmly  in  the  web 
during  the  operation.  Some  of  the  solitary  spe- 
cies spin  at  this  time  a  slender  web,  to  which 
they  affix  themselves.  A  day  or  two  before  the 
critical  moment  for  its  moulting,  the  insect  ceases 
to  eat,  and  loses  its  usual  activity  ;  the  colours 
gradually  become  weaker,  and  the  caterpillar  more 
feeble,  the  skin  hardens  and  withers,  the  crea- 
ture lifts  up  its  back,  stretches  itself  to  the  ut- 
most extent,  sometimes  elevates  its  head,  moving 
it  a  little  from  one  side  to  another,  and  suddenly 
letting  it  fall  again  ;  near  the  change,  the  second 
and  third  rings  are  seen  to  swell  considerably, — 
and  by  repeated  exertions  a  slit  is  made  on  the 
back,  generally  beginning  on  the  second  or  third 
ring ;  through  this  division  the  new  skin  may  be 
just  perceived  by  the  brightness  of  its  colours ; 
the  creature  presses  through  like  a  wedge,  and 
thereby  separates  the  skin  from  the  first  to  the 
fourth  ring,  which  sufficiently  enlarges  the  aper 
ture  to  admit  the  caterpillar  through. 

The  caterpillar  commonly  fasts  a  whole  day 
each  time  after  repeating  this  operation  ;  some 
caterpillars  in  changing  their  skins,  from  smooth, 
become  covered  with  hair ;  while  others,  that 
were  covered  with  hair,  have  their  last  skin", 
smooth. 

The  food  of  caterpillars  is  chiefly  or  entirely 


PRACTICAL  NATURALIST.         153 

of  the  vegetable  kind.  The  larvae*  of  beetles 
live  under  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  prey 
upon  smaller  insects,  on  the  roots  and  tender 
fibrils  of  plants,  or  on  filthy  matter  in  general ; 
indeed,  in  the  last  state,  bettles  are  most  com- 
monly found  in  putrid  flesh,  or  in  the  excre- 
ments of  animals. 

When  the  caterpillar  has  attained  its  full  size, 
and  all  the  parts  of  the  future  moth,  or  butterfly, 
are  sufficiently  formed  beneath  the  skin,  it  pre- 
pares to  change  into  the  chrysalis  or  pupa  state ; 
some  spin  webs,  or  cones,  in  which  they  enclose 
themselves  ;  others  descend  into  the  earth,  and 
conceal  themselves  in  little  cells, which  they  form 
in  the  light  loose  mould ;  some  are  suspended 
by  a  girdle,  which  passes  round  the  body,  and  is 
fastened  to  the  small  twigs  of  trees  ;  and  cater- 
pillars of  butterflies  connect  themselves  by  their 
posterior  extremity  to  the  stalks  or  leaves  of 
plants,  with  their  head  downwards. 

The  length  of  time  insects  live  in  the  state  of 
caterpillars,  is  always  the  same  in  each  individual 
species, — yet  very  few  species  precisely  agree 
to  the  same  period  for  their  changes  ;  some  live 
two  or  three  years,  others  only  a  few  months,  or 

*  Larva  is  a  term  usually  applied  to  the  second  state  of  all 
insects,  except  those  of  moths  and  butterflies,  which  are  called 
caterpillars. 


154  PRACTICAL     XATTRALJST. 

even  weeks,  before  they  pass  to  the  pupa  or 
chrysalis  state. 

Preparatory  to  the  chance,  the  caterpillar 
ceases  to  take  any  of  its  food,  empties  itself  of 
all  the  excrementitious  matter  that  is  contained 
in  the  intestines, — raiding  at  the  same  time  the 
membrane  which  served  as  a  lining  to  these,  and 
the  stomach;  and  perseveres  in  a  state  of  inac- 
tivity for  several  days.  At  length,  by  a  process 
similar  to  its  former  moulting,  the  outer  skin,  or 
slough,  is  cast  off;  and  the  creature  thus  divested 
of  its  last  skin,  is  what  we  call  the  chrysalis. 

PWJME.  Chrysalis.  orAurdia.  The  words  aure- 
lia  or  chrysalis  are  equally  used,  to  express  that 
inactive  state  which  ensues  after  the  caterpillar 
has  changed,  for  the  great  purpose  of  preparing 
for  the  imago,  OT  transformation  to  the  fly.  Au- 
relia  is  derived  from  the  Latin  aurum.  and  chry- 
salis from  the  Greek,  and  are  both  intended  to 
signify  a  creature  formed  of  gold  ;  this  however 
is  giving  a  general  title  from  a  very  partial  cir- 
cumstance, as  the  colour  of  a  considerable  num- 
ber are  black,  or  dark  brown,  while  the  resplen- 
dence of  gold  is  only  seen  on  the  chrysalides  of 
a  few  species  of  the  papflio  or  butterfly.  The 
term  chrysalis  should  therefore  be  used  to  signify 
only  those  of  the  butterfly  kind,  and  pupa  for 


PRACTICAL  NATURALIST.          155 

the    phalaenae,    or   moths,  as  well   as   those   of 
sphinxes,  or  hawk  moths. 

That  very  intelligent  naturalist,  M.  de  Reau- 
mur, explains  the  cause  of  this  brilliant  appear- 
ance ;  it  proceeds  from  two  skins,  the  upper  one. 
a  beautiful  brown,  which  covers  a  highly-polished 
smooth  white  skin ;  the  light  reflected  from  the 
last,  in  passing  through  the  uppermost,  commu- 
nicates this  bright  golden  yellow,  in  the  same 
manner  as  this  colour  is  often  given  to  leather, 
so  that  the  whole  appears  gilded,  although  no 
gold  enters  into  that  tincture. 

The  exterior  part  of  the  pupa  is  at  first  exceed- 
ingly tender,  soft,  and  partly  transparent,  being 
covered  with  a  thick  viscous  fluid,  but  which  dry- 
ing forms  a  new  covering  for  the  animal. 

The  tune  each  insect  remains  in  this  state  is 
very  easily  ascertained  by  those  who  once  breed 
them,  as  they  always  remain  the  same  space  of 
tune,  unless  forwarded  or  retarded  by  heat  or 
cold,  but  in  different  species  they  vary  consider- 
ably ;  for  example,  the  Papilio  Atalanta  (Red 
Admirable)  remained  only  twenty -one  days  in 
chrysalis,  from  the  12th  of  July  to  the  3d  of 
August,  but  the  Phakena  Oo.  (Heart  Moth) 
remained  from  the  beginning  of  October  till  May 
following  ;  and  many  species  remain  a  very  con- 
siderable time  longer  than  this. 

When    the    insect    has   acquired   a   suitable 


156         PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 

degree  of  solidity  and  strength,  it  endeavours  to 
free  itself  from  the  case  in  which  it  is  confined  ; 
and  as  it  adheres  to  a  very  few  parts  of  the  body, 
it  does  not  require  any  great  exertion  to  split  the 
membrane  which  covers  it  ;  a  small  degree  of 
motion,  or  a  little  inflation  of  the  body,  is  suffi- 
cient for  the  purpose ;  these  motions  reiterated  a 
few  times,  enlarge. the  opening,  and  afford  more 
convenience  for  the  insect's  escape;  this  open- 
ing is  always  formed  a  little  above  the  trunk,  be- 
tween the  wings  and  a  small  piece  which  covers 
the  head.  Those  species  which  spin  a  cone,  gnaw 
or  pierce  an  aperture  large  enough  for  their  eman- 
cipation.- 

The  moth  immediately  after  emerging  from  its 
case  is  moist,  with  the  wings  very  small,  thick,  and 
crumpled;  but  they  rapidly  expand  under  the 
eye  of  the  observer,  and  in  a  few  minutes  have 
attained  their  full  size ;  the  moisture  evaporates, 
the  spots  on  the  wings,  which  at  first  appeared 
confused,  become  distinct,  and  the  fibres,  which 
were  before  flexible,  become  stiff  and  hard  as 
bones. 

When  the  wings  are  unfolded,  the  antennae  in 
motion,  the  tongue  coiled  up,  the  moth  suffi- 
ciently dried,  and  its  different  members  strength- 
ened, it  is  prepared  for  flight.  The  excrementi- 
tious  discharge  which  is  voided  by  most  insects 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  157 

at  this  time,  M.  de  Reaumur  thinks  is^the  last 
they  eject  during  their  lives. 


Insects  are  collected  in  every  state,  though  in 
the  caterpillar,  or  chrysalis,  they  are  preferred, 
not  only  as  the  time  of  their  appearance  in  the 
winged  state  may  be  then  carefully  attended  to, 
but  they  will  not  be  so  liable  to  disfigure  and 
damage  their  tender  markings,  as  those  which 
have  been  in  the  wind  or  rain  ;  and  if  they  are 
taken  with  care  from  the  breeding-cage  immedi- 
ately after  their  wings  have  attained  a  proper 
size,  they  may  be  preserved  free  from  any  injury 
to  those  beautiful  feathers,  which  are  generally 
much  discomposed  in  such  insects  as  are  taken  in 
flight. 

There  are  some  which  cannot  be  found  in  the 
caterpillar  state ;  or  if  found,  cannot  be  provided 
with  food ;  those  are  generally  of  that  kind  which 
collectors  term  internal,  or  underground  feeders, 
and  either  subsist  on  some  substance  unknown  to 
us,  or  which  we  cannot  readily  supply.  The  larvae 
of  beetles  and  many  other  kind  of  insects,  are  of 
this  description;  numbers  of  the  moth  tribe  have 
hitherto  only  been  taken  in  the  fly.  state,  and  are 
supposed  to  feed  in  the  night;  they  live  in  cells 
which  they  form  in  the  earth,  and  come  up  in 

14 


158        PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 

the  evening  to  feed,  but  descend  again  into  their 
cells  before  daybreak ;  it  is  therefore  that  some 
Aurelians  have  sought  for  caterpillars  by  the  light 
of  a  candle  or  lantern,  and  have  been  very  suc- 
cessful ;  the  most  valuable  insects  have  been  dis- 
covered by  this  means. 

Insects  are  found  in  almost  every  situation  ; 
the  summits  of  the  loftiest  trees,  and  the  lowest 
herbage  equally  abound,  and  the  gradations  be- 
tween swarm  with  an  infinity  of  species ;  the 
collector  must  be  therefore  supplied  with  a  dif- 
ferent apparatus,  according  to  the  state  in  which 
the  insects*  may  be  found. 

To  collect  caterpillars,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
expand  the  fowling-net,  or  a  large  sheet,  under 
the  branches  ;  then  beat  them  with  a  stick  or 
pole,  and  the  caterpillars  will  be  shaken  down 
with  the  fragments  of  the  foliage  and  broken 
twigs. 

When  you  have  procured  the  caterpillars,  be 
particularly  attentive  to  note  the  plant  on  which 
you  found  each  species,  and  supply  them  plenti- 
fully with  fresh  food  every  day  of  that  kind  ; 
only  observe  if  they  are  moulting  they  must  not 
be  disturbed,  nor  the  stale  food  be  removed,  but 
give  a  fresh  supply  when  the  creature  has  re-^ 
covered  its  strength. 

Insects  in  this  state  are  rarely  found  on  plants 
which  do  not  afford  nourishment  to  their  species ; 


PRACTICAL  NATURALIST.  159 

but  it  sometimes  unfortunately  happens  that 
stragglers  are  taken  on -some  particular  herbage, 
altogether  of  a  different  nature  to  its  proper 
food  ;  and  indeed  in  some  oases  the  most  skilful 
practical  entomologists  are  deceived ;  the  cater- 
pillar refuses  to  eat  of  the  proffered  plant,  and 
dies.  Some*  will  devour  indiscriminately  the 
leaves  of  almost  every  species  of  plants,  and  are 
therefore  called  general  feeders;  some f  are  more 
limited  in  this  particular,  but  feed  on  several 
kinds;  others  J  are  designed  to  eat  the  leaves  of 
two  or  more  plants,  and  a  few  subsist  on  one  spe- 
cies only.  || 

Neither  can  any  certain  criterion  be  formed  as 
to  the  part  of  the  plant,  for  though  most  cater- 
pillars devour  the  leaf,  some  subsist  on  the 
roots ;§  others  on  the  buds,**  flowers,  fruit,ff 
and  indeed  on  every  other  partJJ  of  the  plant, 
shrub,  or  tree. 

*  As  the  Phaleena  antiqua,  vapour  moth;  and  all  the  tigers. 

t  Phalaena  pavonia,  emperor  moth;  on  the  rose,  bramble, 
fruit-trees,  &c. 

t  Phalaena  verbasci,  water  betony  moth;  on  the  mullein 
and  water-betony. 

II   Papilio  vurtica,  tortoise-shell  butterfly;  on  the  nettle. 

§  Phal&na  pronuba,  large  yellow  underwing;  on  the  roots 
of  grass.  Phal&na  humuli,  ghost;  on  the  roots  of  burdock. 

**  Phalcsnasalicella,  rose  moth;  on  the  rose-buds. 

tt  Phalasna  pomonella,  codling  moth;  on  the  apple. 

%$  Phaleena  psi,  gray   dagger ;  bark  of  fruit  and  willow 


160        PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 

It  is  not  always  possible,  if  one  kind  of  food 
cannot  be  procured  with  convenience,  to  deter- 
mine from  the  quality  of  that  food,  what  other 
kind  will  best  suit  the  creature  ;  sometimes  plants 
of  the  most  opposite  nature  have  nourished  the 
same  caterpillar.  The  phalcena  antiqua  has  de- 
voured leaves  of  the  thorn,  and  of  the  rose;  and 
has  throve  well  when  fed  on  the  poisonous  laurel 
and  the  deadly  nightshade. 

They  should  always  have  an  abundance  of 
food,  for  some  kinds  devour  a  very  considerable 
quantity  in  a  few  days;  the  papilio  brassictz, 
cabbage  butterfly,  eats  in  one  day  twice  its  own 
weight  of  food. 

Doctor  Lodovico  Bellardi,  a  learned  and  inge- 
nious botanist  of  Turin,  discovered  some  years 
ago,  after  a  number  of  experiments,  a  new  me- 
thod of  feeding  silk-worms,  when  they  are  hatched 
before  the  mulberry  trees  have  produced  leaves, 
or  when  it  happens  that  the  frost  destroys  the 
tender  branches.  Whether  this  discovery  may 
be  applied  with  equal  propriety  in  other  instances 
seems  at  present  undetermined,  though  from  some 
recent  experiments  we  are  inclined  to  believe  the 
possibility  of  feeding  caterpillars  in  backward 


trees.  Sphinx  apiformis;  on  the  internal  part  of  the  wood 
poplar.  Phalcena  Cossus,  Goat;  on  the  internal  part  of  the 
wood  of  most  trees. 


PRACTICAL  NATURALIST.         161 

seasons  in  this  manner;  we  have  tried  several 
caterpillars  which  were  nearly  full  fed  on  the 
leaves  of  thorns  and  oak  so  prepared,  and  have 
observed  them  to  eat  it  when  no  other  food  was 
given,  but  cannot  say  how  they  may  thrive  if 
fed  on  that  aliment  alone.  This  new  method 
consists  in  giving  the  caterpillars  the  dried  leaves 
of  their  usual  food,  powdered  and  moistened;  and 
repeated  experiments,  says  our  author,  prove  that 
they  (the  caterpillars  of  silk-wTorms)  prefer  it  to 
any  other,  and  eat  it  with  the  greatest  avidity. 
The  leaves  must  be  gathered  about  the  end  of 
autumn,  before  the  frost  commences,  in  dry 
weather,  and  at  times  when  the  heat  is  greatest. 
They  must  be  dried  afterwards  in  the  sun,  by 
spreading  them  upon  large  cloths,  and  laid  up  in 
a  dry  place  after  they  have  been  reduced  to  pow- 
der. When  it  is  necessary  to  give  this  powder 
to  the  caterpillars,  it  should  be  gently  moistened 
with  a  little  water,  and  a  thin  coat  must  be 
placed  round  the  young  worms,  who  will  imme- 
diately begin  to  feed  upon  it. 


THE    BREEDING    CAGES 

May  be  made  of  deal,  with  a  frame  door  cov- 
ered with  gauze  or  crape,  to  admit  fresh  air;  and 
a  hole  in  the  bottom  through  which  the   stalks 
14* 


162        PRACTICAL  NATURALIST, 

of  the  plants  may  be  put  into  a  phial  of  water 
to  preserve  them  fresh. 

Those  cages  should  never  contain  more  than 
one  kind  of  caterpillar,  as  some  species  devour 
others;  and  indeed,  if  left  without  food,  will  de- 
vour those  of  their  own  kind  also. 

Let  not  the  boxes  which  are  taken  in  the  pocket 
for  caterpillars,  nor  the  cages  made  for  breeding 
insects,  be  made  of  deal  or  fir,  except  they  be 
well  lined  with  paper ;  for  the  effluvia  of  the  tur- 
pentine, raised  by  the  heat  of  the  pocket,  or  that 
of  the  sun,  is  extremely  prejudicial  to  them,  and 
seldom  fails  to  destroy  the  greatest  part  of  the 
caterpillars  contained  therein  for  any  length  of 
time.  The  cause  of  the  deaths  of  the  caterpil- 
lars found  at  the  bottoms  of  cages  or  pocket 
boxes,  is  generally  attributed  to  bruises'  got  in 
beating  the  trees  for  them  at  the  time  of  collect- 
ing them,  which  is  a  great  mistake,  as  those 
which  happen  to  be  injured  in  beating,  seldom  die 
till  the  time  of  changing  their  skins,  or  of  their 
transformations,  and  will  .nevertheless  eat  heartily 
till  either  of  these  times  approach.  If  the  inside 
of  the  cages  or  boxes  be  well  lined  with  paper, 
as  aforesaid,  and  air-holes  made  in  the  sides  and 
tops,  covered  with  crape,  canvas,  &tc,  to  admit 
air,  it  will  in  a  very  great  measure  prevent  the 
above  ill  effects. 

Put  a  small  quantity  of  moist  earth,  about  an 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  163 

inch  deep,  at  the  bottom  of  every  cage,  but  if 
the  caterpillars  are  large,  more  in  proportion ; 
always  allowing  a  sufficient  quantity  for  them  to 
bury  in. 

The  cages  must  never  be  exposed  to  the 
scorching  rays  of  the  sun;  on  the  contrary,  place 
them  in  some  cool,  shady  situation. 

The  chrysalides  should  be  preserved  in  some 
cold  or  moist  place  in  the  winter;  for  by  be- 
ing kept  too  dry,  the  earth  about  them  will 
absorb  the  nutritive  moisture  from  the  animal, 
thereby  not  only  weakening  it,  but  hardening  the 
shell,  so  that  its  strength  will  be  insufficient  to 
burst  open  the  case  when  it  should  come  forth  ; 
and  thus  enclosed  it  must  perish  miserably. 

The  larvae  of  many  insects  that  feed  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  may  be  bred  by  the  Au- 
relian  in  the  following  manner:  —  let  any  box  that 
is  about  three  or  four  feet  square,  and  two  or 
three  feet  deep,  be  lined  or  covered  externally 
with  tin,  and  bore  through  the  sides  and  bottom 
a  number  of  very  minute  holes :  put  into  this  box 
a  quantity  of  earth  that  is  replete  with  such  vege- 
tables as  you  are  certain  the  caterpillars  subsist 
on,  and  sink  it  into  a  bed  of  earth,  s0  that  the 
surface  may  be  exposed  to  the  different  changes 
of  the  weather,  unless  the  sun  is  very  hot,  or  the 
rain  heavy;  you  may  then  put  the  caterpillars 


164         PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 

into  the  box,  and  to  prevent  their  escape,  cover 
the  opening  with  brass  or  iron  net-work. 


PUPA. 

We  have  before  observed,  that  insects  taken  in 
this  state  are  most  likely  to  be  perfect  and  vigor- 
ous ;  and  are  therefore  more  generally  sought  for 
by  Aurelians,  than  even  when  in  the  caterpillar 
state.  Some  chrysalides  are  buried  in  the  earth  ; 
some  penetrate  into  rotten  wood  ;  and  some  lie 
concealed  underneath  the  bark  of  trees. 

An  instrument  after  the  form  of  a  hoe  or  trowel 
is  used  wrhen  you  search  for  those  of  the  first 
kind ;  and  the  only  places  worthy  attention  are 
at  the  roots  of  trees,  as  oaks,  elms,  &c,  or  be- 
neath the  underwood:  open  the  earth  close  to 
the  tree,  and  search  to  the  depth  of  several 
inches. 

Such  as  penetrate  into  wrood,  require  more  care 
lest  they  be  destroyed  when  the  attempt  is  made 
to  extricate  them;  sound  on  the  bark  with  a  stick, 
and  you  will  discover  hollows  where  no  external 
signs  are  visible  ;  tear  off  the  bark,  and  with  a 
knife  cut  away  the  wood  that  surrounds  the  ori- 
fice of  the  cavity  to  enlarge  it,  and  take  out  the 
chrysalis  as  carefully  as  possible. 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  165 

Whether  found  in  the  wood,  or  adhering  to 
the  inside  of  the  bark,  it  should  be  preserved  in 
the  same  substance  in  the  breeding-boxes ;  and 
if  found  spun  up  on  the  branches  of  trees,  or  in 
the  mould,  manage  to  adjust  them  in  a  similar 
manner  in  the  boxes.  —  They  must  be  handled 
as  little  as  possible,  and  be  very  careful  not  to 
press  on  any  part ;  as  the  least  rough  treatment 
will  either  kill  or  cripple  the  insect  within. 

Swammerdam  used  to  hatch  the  eggs,  feed  the 
larva?,  and  preserve  the  pupa  of  aquatic  insects, 
in  a  shallow  dish,  which  he  covered  with  white 
paper,  occasionally  moistened,  and  pierced  in 
several  parts  for  the  admission  of  air. 


SETTING    AND    PRESERVING    OF    INSECTS. 

Collectors  are  generally  satisfied,  if  they  can 
obtain  the  insect  in  its  last,  or  fly  state ;  but  as 
a  few  instructions  for  the  preservation  of  the  egg, 
caterpillar,  and  chrysalis,  may  induce  some  fu- 
ture naturalists  to  enrich  their  cabinets  with 
such  specimens,  in  addition  to  the  insect  itself, 
we  have  selected  a  few  particulars  for  their  pur- 
pose. 

The  Egg.  The  eggs  of  most  insects  retain 
their  form  and  colour  well,  if  preserved  in  the 


166  PRACTICAL    NATURALIST. 

cabinet,  but  those  which  do  not  promise  fairly, 
may  be  prepared  after  the  method  practised  by 
Swammerdam;  he  used  to  pierce  the  eggs  with 
a  very  fine  needle,  and  press  all  the  contained 
juices  through  the  aperture ;  then  inflated  them 
until  they  regained  their  proper  form  by  means 
of  a  small  glass  tube,  and  lastly  filled  them  with 
oil  of  spike,  in  which  some  resin  had  been  dis- 
solved. 

The  Caterpillar.  The  preservation  of  insects 
in  this  state,  is  not  only  one  of  the  most  curious 
but  useful  discoveries  that  have  been  made  in 
this  department  of  science.  They  may  be  pre- 
served by  being  plunged  into  phials  filled  with 
well  rectified  spirit  of  wine ;  this  method  should 
ever  be  preferred  by  those  who  collect  in  a  dis- 
tant country,  if  their  subjects  are  not  likely  to  be 
injured  by  such  a  process;  the  most  delicate 
caterpillars  will  retain  their  exact  size,  but  the 
spirit  will  generally  extract  the  colour,  and 
from  those  especially  which  have  very  tender 
skins. 

But  the  manner  in  which  Swammerdam  pre- 
served his  caterpillars,  completely  obviates  this 
defect;  and  if  carefully  managed,  it  not  only  pre- 
serves the  exact  size,  but  generally  retains  the 
colours  as  perfectly  as  in  the  living  creature. 

He  used  to  make  a  small  incision  or  puncture 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  167 

in  the  tail,  and  having  very  gently  and  with 
much  patience  pressed  out  all  the  contained 
humours,  injected  wax  into  them,  so  as  to  give 
them  all  the  appearance  of  healthy  living  insects. 
In  this  mariner  he  has  preserved  many  very  small 
specimens. 

There  is  another  method,  which  is  more  gener- 
ally known  to  collectors;  it  consists  in  taking  out 
all  the  inside  of  the  caterpillar,  and  inflating  the 
skin  by  means  of  a  glass  tube. 

The  entrails,  with  whatever  of  the  fleshy  sub- 
stance can  be  removed,  are  drawn  through  the 
anus  by  means  of  fine  wire  curved  at  the  end  ; 
when  the  inside  is  emptied,  the  glass  tube  is  in- 
serted into  the  opening,  through  which  the  opera- 
tor continues  to  blow  while  he  turns  the  skin  at 
the  end  slowly  round  over  a  charcoal  fire ;  this 
hardens  the  skin  equally,  and  dries  up  all  the 
moisture  within ;  a  pin  is  then  put  through  it  to 
fix  it  in  a  standing  position :  if  the  skin  is  tender, 
it  may  be  filled  with  white  paper  or  cotton. 

But  this  is  a  most  cruel  operation  on  the  little 
victim,  and  such  as  must  shock  the  feelings  of 
the  human  soul ;  if  therefore  any  other  method 
can  be  introduced  which  will  effect  the  purpose 
in  a  short  time,  the  practice  should  be  exploded 
as  wanton  barbarity. 

Various  attempts  have  been  made,  and  among 
these  some  have  tried  to  drown  the  caterpillar; 


168  PRACTICAL    NATURALIST. 

but  you  will  never  be  able  to  accomplish  its 
death  in  this  manner,  unless  it  remains  for  a 
considerable  time  under  water,  and  though  it 
may  appear  dead,  the  principle  of  life' will  not 
be  destroyed.  Mr  Bonnet,  making  experiments 
on  the  respiration  of  insects,  had  one  caterpillar 
which  lived  eight  days  with  only  two  of  its  ante- 
rior spiracula  in  the  air. 

The  method  we  wish  to  recommend  is  to  ob- 
serve when  the  caterpillar  is  on  the  point  of  cast- 
ing its  last  skin  ;  drop  it  by  the  threads  into 
scalding  water,  and  quickly  withdraw  it ;  the 
creature  will  be  killed  instantly  ;  then  put  it 
into  some  distilled  vinegar  mixed  with  spirit  of 
wine,  which  will  give  a  proper  firmness  to  all 
the  parts,  and  accelerate  the  separation  of  the 
skin  from  the  body  ;  the  flesh  may  be  carefully 
extracted,  and  the  exuvia  or  skin  be  blown  up 
by  means  of  a  glass  tube  while  suspended  over 
a  charcoal  fire,  as  before  described. 

Anoint  it  with  oil  of  spike  in  which  some  resin 
has  been  dissolved,  unless  it  is  a  hairy  cater- 
pillar. 

The  Pupa  or  Chrysalis.  When  insects  have 
quitted  the  pupa  state,  the  case  will  require  only 
to  be  put  into  the  drawers  or  boxes  with  some 
camphor,  but  those  which  have  the  insects  within 


PRACTICAL  NATURALIST.         169 

must  be  either  dropped  into  scalding  water,  or 
inclosed  in  a  small  chip  box,  and  exposed  to  the 
heat  of  a  fire,  which  will  shortly  kill  the  insect 
within. 

If  those  chrysalides  which  have  the  appearance 
of  gold  are  put  into  spirit  of  wine,  they  will  al- 
ways retain  that  colour,  but  if  the  insect  within  is 
killed  first,  or  if  the  fly  has  quitted  it,  such  ap- 
pearance is  entirely  lost. 


THE  LAST  OR  PERFECT  STATE. 

Coleopterous  Insects,  or  Beetles.  The  pre* 
seryation  of  this  order  of  insects,  is  attended  with 
very  little  difficulty. 

If  you  drop  them  into  scalding  water  they  die 
in  an  instant,  but  the  moisture  they  imbibe  can 
never  be  sufficiently  exhaled  to  prevent  mouldi- 
ness,  after  they  have  been  a  short  time  in  the 
cabinet. 

The  best  method  is  to  enclose  them  in  a  small 
chip  box,  and  kill  them  by  exposing  the  box  to 
the  heat  of  a  fire  ;  this  treatment  will  rather 
absorb,  than  add  to  the  superfluous  juices  of  the 
insect,  and  greatly  contribute  to  its  preservation. 

Those  of  the  meloe  genus  have  soft,  tender 
bodies,  which  shrivel  after  death ;  to  preserve 
15 


170  PRACTICAL     NATURALIST. 

those,  make  an  incision  at  the  extremity  of  the 
abdomen,  probe  out  the  entrails, and  fill  the  cavity 
with  fine  tow. 

Several  foreign  species  of  cassida,  and  many 
other  coleopterous  insects,  are  beautifully  varie- 
gated with  a  golden  colour  that  dies  with  the 
creature  ;  if  you  plunge  them  into  well  rectified 
spirit  of  wine,  when  alive,  they  soon  expire  and 
retain  their  golden  appearance ;  but  if  taken  out 
and  dried,  that  brilliance  will  be  irretrievably 
lost. 

The  Chinese  seldom  take  care  to  display  the 
parts  of  their  insects  after  the  European  manner ; 
those  we  receive  from  China  are  stuck  on  long 
needles  ;  if  beetles,  often  through  one  elytra,  so 
that  the  membranaceous  wings  are  entirely  con- 
cealed. 

If  the  insects  require  only  a  little  relaxation  to 
extend  the  parts,  use  a  camel's-hair  pencil  moist- 
ened with  spirit  of  wine  ;  but  if  this  should  prove 
insufficient,  fix  them  on  a  piece  of  cork  and  float 
them  in  an  earthen  pan  half  filled  with  water;  it 
is  better  to  cover  the  pan  with  a  damp  cloth, and 
the  insects  will  be  so  limber,  after  a  few  hours, 
that  they  may  be  reset  in  any  position. 

Large  beetles  are  usually  stuck  through  one  of 
the  shells,  but  smaller  insects  are  better  if  dis- 
played o^  a  small  piece  of  card  (they  must  be 


PRACTICAL  NATURALIST.         171 

fixed  to  the  card  with  strong  gum)  ;  or  they  may 
be  pierced  through  the  head. 

Insects  of  the  hemiptera  order,  as  cimices,&c? 
may  be  treated  in  the  same  manner. 


LEPIDOPTEROUS    INSECTS, AS    BUTTERFLIES, 

HAWK-MOTHS,    AND    MOTHS. 

Sphinxes  and  moths  are  generally  disposed  in 
pairs  to  show  the  male  and  female,  and  as  their 
under  sides  are  seldom  very  beautiful,  only  their 
upper  sides  are  shown. 

Except  a  few  species,  moths  constantly  con- 
ceal their  under  wings  when  at  rest ;  but  collect- 
ors sacrifice  the  propriety  of  their  remaining  in  a 
natural  position,  in  order  to  display  the  under 
wings. — It  is  advisable  to  have  one  of  every 
kind  in  a  natural  posture,  as  that  will  often  es- 
sentially assist  to  determine  the  family  of  the 
insect. 

Provide  a  quantity  of  card-braces,  and  a  board 
of  a  convenient  size,  covered  with  soft  cork  ;  it 
must  be  perfectly  even  on  the  surface,  and  pa- 
pered ;  this  is  termed  the  setting-board. 

For  small  moths  it  is  only  necessary  to  put  the 
pin  through  the  thorax  and  they  die  in  a  very 
short  time  ;  but  for  larger  kinds,  the  pin  should 


172         PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 

be  dipped  in  strong  aqua-fortis  before  it  is  put 
through  the  insect. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  kill  the  largest  kinds  of 
moths  and  sphinxes: — select  a  large  pin  (com- 
paratively for  the  size  of  the  insect)  and  dip  it 
into  aqua-fortis  as  before,  but  immediately  that 
the  pin  is  forced  through  the  thorax  withdraw  it, 
and  put  a  drop  of  aqua-fortis  into  the  wound; 
should  this  prove  insufficient  to  kill  it,  put  the 
point  of  the  pin  through  a  card,  and  hold  it  in 
the  flame  of  a  candle  until  it  becomes  red  hot ; 
this  will  kill  the  insect  immediately,  and  the 
card  will  protect  it  from  being  injured  by  the 
flame. 

The  moth  is  then  to  be  fixed  on  the  setting- 
board.  The  wings  are  to  be  carefully  displayed 
by  means  of  a  large  pin,  and  the  braces  put  close 
down  to  prevent  their  return  to  the  natural  posi- 
tion.— Note,  All  insects  must  be  set  while  they 
remain  limber,  for  if  the  parts  stiffen  they  are  apt 
to  snap ;  they  may  be  relaxed  by  floating  them  in 
a  pan  of  water. 

Insects  should  remain  beneath  the  braces  on 
the  setting-board  until  all  the  aqueous  moisture 
be  evaporated,  or  the  wings  will  start  from  their 
position,  and  the  bodies  turn  black,  or  mouldy  ; 
they  should  be  placed  in  a  dry  situation,  and  be 
covered  with  gauze  for  the  admission  of  air  for 


PRACTICAL  NATURALIST.         173 

the  space  of  a  month  at  least,  before  they  are  put 
into  the  cabinet. 

It  is  proper  in  this  place  to  caution  the  young 
beginner  not  to  attempt  to  kill  the  insects  by 
fumigations  of  sulphur,  &LC,  a  practice  too  fre- 
quent with  persons  of  this  description,  for  should 
he  by  this  means  deprive  the  creature  of  its  life, 
he  will  also  deprive  it  of  its  beauty.  It  is  even 
doubtful  whether  many  may  not  survive  the 
operation. 

M.  Lyonet  placed  several  of  the  large  musk 
beetles,  probably  the  cerambyx  moschatus,  under 
a  glass  where  he  had  been  burning  sulphur,  and 
which  he  kept  burning  while  they  were  there ; 
and  though  the  vapour  was  so  thick  that  he 
could  not  discern  them,  and  that  he  kept  them 
therein  more  than  half  an  hour,  they  did  not 
seem  in  the  least  incommoded.* 

Some  moths  are  very  liable  to  change  colour 
when  placed  in  the  cabinet,  and  particularly  those 
which  collectors  term  full-bodied ;  an  oily  matter 
is  common  to  all  insects,  but  those  are  charged 
with  a  superabundance.  It  appears  at  first  in 
spots  on  the  body,  but  gradually  pervades  every 
part;  in  some  it  will  even  descend  into  the  wings, 


*  Lesser,  Theologie  des  Insectes,  torn,  i,  p.  124.     Ibid,   p. 
126. 


174  PRACTICAL     NATURALIST, 

and  then  an  obliteration  of  all  the  tender  marks 
and  beautiful  specklings  is  the  least  that  may  be 
expected,  if  a  total  change  of  its  colours,  to  an 
uniform  dirty  brown,  does  not  ensue.  Hence  it 
is  that  many  of  the  Linnaean  descriptions  of  in- 
sects appear  defective  to  such  as  breed  them  ;  we 
not  unfrequently  read,  body  black,  though  we 
know  that  part  of  the  insect  is  white  in  every 
specimen  that  is  not  greasy ;  the  body  of  the 
satin  moth  is  perfectly  white  when  fine,  but  after 
it  has  been  killed  some  time,  it  becomes  black  in 
parts ;  the  body  of  the  burnet  sphinx  is  of  a 
very  brilliant  blue  colour,  with  yellow  bands  on 
every  annulation,  when  alive,  but  changes  to  a 
velvety  black  SOOH  after  the  insect  dies ;  the  same 
is  observed  on  the  body  of  the  currant  sphinx ; 
and  every  part  of  the  body  of  the  hornet  sphinx 
changes  to  a  jet  black,  after  being  some  time  in 
the  cabinet;  although  when  alive  it  is  a  very 
bright  yellow,  with  a  band  of  purple.  Hence 
also  it  is  that  some  specimens  of  very  common 
insects  are  valuable,  by  having  preserved  their 
proper  colours  uninjured. 

Various  methods  have  been  tried  to  extract 
the  grease  from  the  moths,  but  a  preventative 
should  always  be  preferred. 

If  the  grease  has  not  spread  into  the  wings, 


PRACTICAL     NATURALIST.  175 

the  insect  may  sometimes  be  cured,  but  it  will 
be  very  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  eradicate 
the  grease  which  has  settled  in  patches  on  the 
wings. 

Large  moths  are  to  be  opened  in  a  straight  line 
along  the  under  side  of  the  body,  the  entrails,  &c, 
taken  out,  and  the  cavity  filled  with  fine  tow  or 
cotton. — This  should  be  performed  soon  after  the 
insect  is  dead.  The  most  delicate  specimens  may 
be  preserved  entire  by  this  means. 

Sometimes  it  will  be  proper  to  break  off  the 
body  close  at  the  thorax,  and  substitute  the  body 
of  another  insect  which  nearly  resembles  it,  and 
which  is  not  so  liable  to  change. 

The  method  which  is  most  successful  for  re- 
covering the  original  appearance  after  the  insect 
has  become  greasy,  is  to  powder  some  fine  dry 
chalk,  on  a  piece  of  heated  iron ;  cover  the  chalk 
with  a  very  fine  linen  cloth,  and  thereto  apply 
the  under  part  of  the  body  of  the  insect :  the 
heat  of  the  iron  dissolves  the  grease,  while  the 
chalk  absorbs  it,  and  the  linen  cloth  prevents  the 
chalk  from  clotting  to  the  insect.  This  process 
may  be  repeated  several  times  if  the  grease  is  not 
entirely  eradicated  by  the  first  attempt.  Always 
observe  to  exactly  attemperate  the  heat  of  the 
iron. 

They  may  be  baked  in  a  slack  oven,  with  the 


176         PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 

chalk  placed  to  absorb  the  grease,  without  any 
considerable  injury  to  the  colours. 

Some  collectors  open  the  bodies  of  large  moths, 
take  out  the  entrails,  and  fill  the  cavity  with  fine 
dry  powdered  chalk. 


MINUTE    MOTHS. TINEA,    TORTRIX,    ALUCITA, 

&C. 


Much  experience,  and  considerable  care,  with 
a  light,  but  steady  hand,  are  necessary  for  the 
management  of  minute  moths  on  the  setting- 
board  ;  it  will  be  equally  useless  and  impossible, 
to  enter  into  a  minute  detail  of  every  trivial  cir- 
cumstance that  must  be  attended  to:  we  shall 
therefore  give  a  general  sketch,  and  leave  the 
rest  to  the  ingenuity  of  the  operator. 

First,  the  fans  of  the  clappers,  or  forceps,  or 
the  fowling-net  if  you  prefer  it,  must  be  covered 
with  silk  gauze,  of  a  very  soft  and  delicate 
texture,  and  as  the  slightest  friction  will  obliter- 
ate the  beautiful  specklings ,  or  raised  tufts  that 
are  so  profusely  bestowed  by  the  hand  of  nature 
on  this  most  elegant  tribe  of  insects,  you  must  be 
extremely  careful  when  you  press  on  the  thorax 
not  to  crush  it  more  than  you  can  possibly 
avoid  :  or  if  you  have  it  between  the  fans  of  the 


PRACTICAL  NATURALIST.        177 

forceps,  put  the  pin  through  the  thorax  while  the 
creature  is  confined  in  that  situation. 

The  next  care  will  be  to  procure  pins  of  such 
a  degree  of  fineness,  as  not  to  injure  or  distort 
the  wings  of  the  insect ;  the  smallest  sort  of  lace 
pins  will  do  very  well  for  most  kinds,  but  there 
are  some  so  extremely  minute  that  even  those 
would  be  too  coarse.  If  you  have  pins  made 
purposely  for  insects  of  this  kind,  let  them  be 
about  an  inch  in  length,  and  have  them  drawn 
as  fine  as  possible. 

When  the  pin  is  put  through  the  thorax  it 
must  be  managed  with  the  greatest  dexterity, 
and  be  exactly  in  the  centre,  as  the  least  varia- 
tion to  either  side  will  break  the  .nerves  of  the 
anterior  margin  of  the  upper  wings,  which  will 
immediately  start,  and  can  never  be  replaced  in 
a  proper  position;  if  the  pin  is  placed  too  high, 
it  will  sever  the  head  from  the  shoulders,  and  by 
being  too  low,  the  under  wings  also  will  break  off 
or  start  from  their  true  position ;  it  may  be  man- 
aged better  with  the  assistance  of  a  magnifying 
eye-glass. 

The  braces  are  to  be  made  of  the  same  form 
as  those  which  are  used  for  larger  insects,  only 
smaller  in  proportion  ;  and  instead  of  making 
them  of  stiff  card,  or  pasteboard,  they  may  be 
small  slips  of  vellum,  or  stout  paper  that  has  been 
hot -pressed.  You  must  brace  them  immediately 


178         PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 

after  you  have  put  the  pin  through  the  thorax, 
for  if  they  are  permitted  to  stiffen,  they  cannot 
be  relaxed  so  well  as  larger  insects. 

Minute  moths  are  to  be  found  in  winter  as  well 
as  summer ;  it  would  be  scarcely  imagined,  nay 
reason  would  deny,  did  not  experience  prove,  that 
when  the  frost  is  so  severe  as  to  entirely  subvert 
the  appearance  and  almost  annihilate  the  exist- 
ance  of  all  the  vegetable  productions,  within  the 
verge  of  its  influence,  myriads  of  those  delicately 
formed  creatures  brave  the  inclement  season,  and 
exist  securely  within  those  habitations  they  have 
the  address  to  construct. 

A  very  skilful  entomologist  informs  us,  that 
having  occasion  to  go  into  the  country  when  the 
cold  was  intensely  severe  and  the  snow  deep,  he 
collected  in  a  few  hours  a  vast  number  of  minute, 
insects  of  the  cohoptera,  hemiptera,  and  lepidop- 
tera  orders ;  and  though  his  collection  was  then 
very  considerable,  he  selected  thirteen  new  spe- 
cies, and  among  them  several  which  he  has  never 
found,  but  when  the  weather  has  been  very  cold, 
as  at  that  time. 

It  is  proper  to  observe,  that  those  insects  usu- 
ally shelter  among  the  moss,  and  other  extrane- 
ous matter  that  grow  on  the  trunks  or  branches 
of  trees,  or  beneath  the  rotten  bark.  Gather  the 
moss,  &c,  into  a  box,  or  tin  canister,  and  shut  it 
close  to  prevent  the  escape  of  those  insects,  that 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  179 

may  revive  by  the  warmth  ;  when  you  have  an 
opportunity  to  examine  them,  spread  a  sheet  of 
writing-paper  on  the  table,  and  place  a  lamp,  or 
candle,  with  a  shade  of  transparent  or  oiled  paper 
before  you,  so  as  to  weaken  the  glare  ;  then  sepa- 
rate the  moss,  and  shake  it  loosely  in  your  hand, 
and  you  will  perceive  many  insects  fall  down  on 
the  paper;  if  they  are  so  minute  that  by  thrust- 
ing the  pin  through  the  thorax  they  would  be 
damaged,  fasten  them  with  gum-water,  or  some 
glutinous  varnish,  to  small  slips  or  pieces  of 
paper. 


NEUROPTEROUS,  HYMENOPTEROTJS,  AND  DIPTE- 
ROUS INSECTS. 

Among  those  of  the  neuropterous  order  are 
included  the  libellulae,  a  most  elegant  tribe  of 
insects,  but  very  difficult  to  preserve.  The  co- 
lours on  the  body  are  exceedingly  brilliant  in 
some  species,  but  inevitably  change  black  within 
a  few  days  after  death,  unless  the  collector  is 
particularly  attentive  to  their  preparation. 

They  are  extremely  tenacious  of  life ;  we  have 
seen  one  of  the  larger  kinds  live  two  days  on  the 
pin,  and  even  show  symptoms  of  life  twenty-four 
hours  after  being  deprived  of  its  head. 


180         PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 

The  most  expeditious  method  of  killing  those 
creatures,  is  to  run  a  red  hot  wire  up  the  body 
and  thorax,  for  they  will  live  a  considerable  time 
in  agony,  if  you  attempt  to  kill  them  with  aqua- 
fortis as  before  directed  for  the  moth  tribe. 

After  they  are  dead,  clean  their  bodies  on  the 
inside  with  a  little  cotton  twisted  to  the  end  of  a 
wire,  and  put  a  roll  of  white  paper  into  the  ca- 
vity, or  fill  it  with  cotton ;  in  most  species  this 
will  not  only  admirably  relieve  the  colours,  but 
preserve  them  from  changing  black. 

Note.  Those  kinds  only  with  transparent  skins 
will  require  this  preparation,  as  the  L.  4,  macu- 
lata,  &c. 

Some  of  the  foreign  insects  of  those  orders  ap- 
pear to  the  greatest  advantage  in  spirit  of  wine, 
but  whenever  the  usual  method  will  suffice,  it 
should  be  preferred.  They  are  all  to  be  stuck 
through  the  thorax,  and  observe  always  to  put 
the  pin  so  far  through,  that  when  it  is  stuck  near 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  into  the  cork  the  feet  of  the 
insect  may  only  touch  the  surface. 

The  wings  are  to  be  displayed  with  cramps  as 
usual. 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  181 


APTEROUS    INSECTS. 

Many  kinds  may  be  preserved  in  spirits,  or  in 
the  same  manner  as  coleopterous  and  other  in- 
sects ;  but  among  those  we  can  include  very  few, 
if  any,  of  that  extensive  genus  aranea  (spiders), 
no  method  having  been  hitherto  discovered  where- 
by they  may  be  preserved  in  their  natural  colours, 
for  however  beautiful  they  may  be  when  alive, 
their  bodies  shrivel  and  their  tints  become  an 
obscure  brown,  soon  after  death ;  and  as  the  moist- 
ure exhales,  the  size  of  the  body  diminishes,  very 
little  more  than  the  skin  of  it  remaining  when  the 
creature  is  sufficiently  dry  to  be  placed  in  the 
cabinet. 

Spiders  cast  their  skins  several  times  in  the 
course  of  their  lives ;  the  exuvia  would  be  very 
acceptable  to  the  collector,  if  they  retained  any 
of  the  beautiful  colours  of  the  living  spiders. 

To  determine  whether  some  species  of  spiders 
could  be  preserved  with  their  natural  colours,  we 
put  several  into  spirit  of  wine  ;  those  with  gib- 
bous bodies  soon  after  discharged  a  very  consid- 
erable quantity  of  viscid  matter,  and  therewith 
all  their  most  beautiful  colours;  the  smallest  re- 
tained their  form,  and  only  appeared  rather  paler 
in  the  colours  than  when  they  were  living. 

From  other  observations  it  appears,  that  if  you 

16 


182         PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 

kill  the  spider,  and  immediately  after  extract  the 
entrails,  then  inflate  them  by  means  of  a  blow- 
pipe, you  may  preserve  them  tolerably  well ;  you 
must  cleanse  them  on  the  inside  no  more  than  is 
sufficient  to  prevent  mouldiness,  lest  you  injure 
the  colours,  which  certainly  in  many  kinds  de- 
pend on  some  substance  that  lies  beneath  the 
skin. 

After  inflating  them,  you  may  either  inject 
them  with  fine  virgin  wax,  or  anoint  the  skin 
with  oil  of  spike  in  which  resin  has  been  dis- 
solved, and  dry  them  in  some  shady  place. 

Of  the  largest  kinds  of  foreign  spiders,  the 
bodies  are  the  only  parts  which  are  liable  to 
shrivel ;  if  they  were  prepared  in  this  manner, 
their  proper  form  would  be  preserved. 

In  1792,  Dr  Withering  presented  a  paper  to 
the  Linnaean  society,  in  which  he  relates  the 
particulars  of  a  new  method  of  preserving  fungi, 
&c;  as  we  have  given  an  account  of  this  im- 
provement with  the  instructions  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  plants,  we  shall  only  observe  in  this 
place,  that  the  composition  which  he  has  applied 
with  so  much  success  as  a  preservative  of  the 
most  perishable  tribes  of  vegetables,  may  here 
after  prove  also  an  excellent  preservative  for  spi- 
ders, and  other  apterous  insects.  - 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST,  183 


THE    CABINET. 

It  is  immaterial  whether  the  cabinet  is  made  of 
mahogany  or  wainscot;  sometimes  they  are  made 
of  cedar  wood,  but  very  seldom  of  deal  or  any 
other  wood  that  is  soft;  the  drawers  may  be  from 
fifteen  to  thirty  inches  in  length,  the  same,  or 
nearly  the  same  in  breadth,  and  about  two  or 
three  inches  in  depth ;  the  cork  with  which  the 
bottoms  are  to  be  lined,  must  be  chosen  as  free 
from  cracks  as  possible,  it  must  be  glued  into  the 
drawers  to  prevent  its  warping,  and  be  filed,  or 
cut  very  level ;  the  irregularities  should  be  rub- 
bed even  with  pumice-stone,  and  the  whole  sur- 
face be  perfectly  smooth,  before  the  paper  is 
pasted  over  it ;  the  paper  should  be  of  the  finest 
quality,  but  neither  very  stout,  nor  highly  sized  ; 
the  former  being  liable  to  turn  the  points  of  the 
pins,  and  the  latter  to  injure  the  insects  by  not 
readily  absorbing  the  grease,  which  may  flow  from 
them  :  the  top  of  every  drawer  must  be  glazed, 
to  prevent  the  admission  of  dust  or  air;  the  glass 
is  usually  fitted  into  a  frame  of  the  same  size  as 
the  drawer,  and  is  made  either  to  slide  in  a 
groove,  or  let  in  on  a  rabbet.  Some  collectors 
wash  the  cork  several  times  with  spirit  of  wine 
and  corrosive  sublimate,  to  destroy  the  mites  ; 


184 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST. 


and  moisten  the  paper  after  it  is  pasted  on  the 
cork  with  alum-water. 

Observe  that  every  crevice  in  the  drawers  or 
boxes  must  be  stopped  to  prevent  the  admission 
of  external  air,  and  always  appropriate  a  quan- 
tity of  camphor  for  each  drawer,  or  the  mites 
will  destroy  the  insects. 

If  your  cabinets  or  boxes  stand  in  a  damp 
situation,  the  insect  will  become  mouldy  on  the 
antennae,  legs,  &c  ;  this  must  be  cleaned  off  with 
a  camePs-hair  pencil,  and  the  cabinets  in  future 
be  put  into  some  place  where  they  will  be  less 
exposed  to  damp.  » 

If  you  perceive  notwithstanding  the  camphor, 
a  dusty  appearance  on  the  insects,  add  also  a 
quantity  of  musk,  and  clean  the  dust  off  with  a 
soft  pencil  ;  if  after  this  you  find  more  dust, 
either  bake  the  insects,  or  dissolve  corrosive  sub- 
limate in  spirit  of  wine,  and  touch  the  parts  that 
appear  dusty  with  a  fine  pencil  moistened  in  the 
liquor,  which  will  destroy  the  mites  that  occasion 
such  appearance. 

The  method  which  Harris  advises  promises 
only  to  materially  injure  the  insects,  or  at  least 
change  their  colours  if  brilliant,  as  we  have  found 
by  experience. 

c  If  at  any  time  the  insects  in  a  cabinet  or  box, 
where  they  are  placed  for  preservation,  should 
appear  as  if  growing  mouldy,  or  be  infested  with 


PRACTICAL  NATURALIST.          185 

small  animalcules,  which  is  known  by  a  kind  of 
dust  seen  beneath  the  abdomen ;  in  this  case  the 
smoke  of  tobacco  is  the  only  effectual  remedy, 
which  must  be  blown  through  the  small  end  of  a 
pipe  admitted  through  a  hole  made  for  that  pur- 
pose in  the  back  of  the  drawer  or  box ;  this  not  only 
corrects  the  putrid  and  stagnant  air,  but  destroys 
those  formidable  enemies  which  often  destroy 
whole  cabinets  of  insects:  this  will  preserve  them 
for  twelve  months,  when  it  will  be  necessary  to 
act  the  same  part  over  again.  It  may  be  feared 
and  objected  that  the  smoke  may  in  some  mea- 
sure damage  the  insects,  but  a  little  experience 
will  plainly  evince  the  contrary.5 


186  PRACTICAL     NATURALIST. 


DESCRIPTION    OF    THE    MUSEUM    OF    NATURAL 
HISTORY    AT    PARIS. 

Vallee  Suisse  and  Menagerie.  The  menage- 
rie of  Versailles  was  transported  hither  in  1794. 
It  comprises  a  length  of  229  toises,  and  a  breadth 
of  110.  The  animals  of  peaceable  habits  occupy 
fourteen  divisions,  each  subdivided  into  as  many 
compartments  as  there  are  different  species.  No- 
thing can  be  more  picturesque  than  what  is  here 
exhibited;  —  a  perpetual  variation  of  surface,  an 
unceasing  diversity  in  the  apartments  which  con- 
tain the  different  animals — each  one  lodged  ac- 
cording to  his  peculiar  character, — variety  even 
in  the  lattices  of  the  chestnut  trees  which  form 
the  enclosure.  On  entering  the  Vallee  Suisse 
on  the  side  of  the  amphitheatre,  and  taking  the 
alley  which  winds  between  the  rotunda  and  avi- 
ary, you  are  struck  with  the  camel  Alpaca,  re- 
markable for  the  length  and  fineness  of  his  hair. 
In  the  first  enclosure,  you  see  the  long-tailed 
African  sheep,  the  sheep  of  Morvan  with  his 
abundant  fleece,  the  goats  of  Tartary  and  India 
whose  hair  is  manufactured  into  shawls,  a  he- 
goat  from  Upper  Egypt,  and  others  of  different 
parts  of  Europe.  The  next  enclosure  has  five 
divisions,  and  contains  in  the  middle  a  circular 


PRACTICAL  NATURALIST.          187 

cabin.  The  first  division  is  an  immense  basin,  in 
which  are  swimming  a  multitude  of  aquatic  fowl 
and  tortoises.  The  four  others  contain  the  galli- 
naceous tribes  and  shore-birds ;  the  last  of  all  is 
tenanted  by  ostriches. 

The  neighbouring  park,  which  in  structure  re- 
sembles a  ruin,  contains  several  species  of  ani- 
mals, and  a  basin  for  water-fowl.  A  ruin  pre- 
senting the  appearance  of  a  painted  house,  offers 
a  retreat  to  the  deer  and  wild  goats  that  inhabit 
the  next  enclosure.  Close  to  this  is  a  rotunda 
surrounded  by  pillars,  containing  a  mule  of  the 
breed  of  the  zebra.  Other  divisions  are  inhabited 
by  divers  species  of  sheep  and  fallow  deer.  Be- 
tween the  menagerje  of  peaceable  animals  and 
the  garden,  are  pits  which  contain  three  bears 
and  two  wild  boars.  The  rotunda  in  the  centre 
of  the  menagerie  is  tenanted  by  a  young  elephant, 
a  male  and  female  bison,  five  dromedaries,  a  ze- 
bra, and  other  tropical  animals.  Opposite  is  a 
magnificent  enclosure,  containing  pheasants  of  all 
countries,  even  of  China.  Near  these  are  the 
birds  of  prey ;  among  which  are  the  vulture  papa, 
given  to  the  Museum  by  the  Duke  of  Orleans, 
now  Louis  Philippe,  King  of  the  French, — the 
condor,  the  vulture  without  a  tail  from  Senegal, 
then  the  noisy  tribe  of  parrots,  and  the  mimick- 
ing race  of  apes. 

Toward  the  Seine,  there  was  constructed  in 


188         PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 

1821  a  menagerie  for  ferocious  animals  ;  at  pre- 
sent its  twenty-one  apartments  contain  —  a  Sene- 
gal lion  with  a  faithful  dog  for  his  companion,  a 
lioness  accompanied  by  a  bitch,  a  bear  with  a 
mane,  a  male  and  female  wolf,  a  jackal  of  Sene- 
gal, and  an  Asturian  bear. 

Cabinet  of  Natural  History.  This  occupies 
the  whole  of  the  building  of  two  stories,  extend- 
ing upon  a  facade  of  290Teet  beyond  the  court 
at  the  extremity  of  the  garden  opposite  the 
Seine.  Upon  the  first  floor,  are  exhibited  in  a 
large  hall  samples  or  models  of  all  instruments 
used  in  agriculture ;  the  remainder  of  this  story 
serves  as  a  magazine  for  those  objects  of  Natural 
History,  which  are  too  large  to  be  placed  in  cabi- 
nets. The  interior  is  divided  into  six  rooms  on 
the  first  floor,  and  five  on  the  second.  The  first 
contain  geological  and  mineralogical  collections, 
reptiles,  and  fishes  ;  the  second  are  devoted  to 
quadrupeds,  insects,  and  shells. 

Geological  Collection.  The  entrance  to  this 
temple  consecrated  to  the  productions  of  nature, 
is  indicated  by  a  magnificent  column  of  the  basalt 
of  La  Tour  in  the  department  of  Puy  de  Dome ; 
this  column  is  surmounted  by  a  superb  pyramid 
of  rock  crystal,  2i  feet  in  diameter  at  the  base  ; 
near  this  are  two  other  basaltic  columns  from  the 


PRACTICAL  NATURALIST,         189 

Giant's  Causeway  in  Ireland,  and  a  column  of 
irregular  structure  from  St  Sandoux  in  Puy  de 
Dome.  In  the  first  room  are  to  be  seen  a  multi- 
tude of  stones,  bearing  the  impression  of  plants 
and  invertebrated  animals.  Here  also  is  a  com- 
plete collection  of  the  stones  natural  to  the  soil  of 
France.  Fossil  vegetables  are  arranged  in  cabi- 
nets on  the  left,  and  fossil  animals  on  the  right. 
The  second  hall  has  a  rich  collection  of  vertebrated 
animals,  illustrating  the  process  of  their  petrifac- 
tion ;  these  occupy  two  immense  glass  cases,  in 
the  centre  of  the  hall.  Fossil  fishes  are  on  the 
right  of  the  entrance, — fossil  bones  of  quadru- 
peds, birds,  and  reptiles  in  cases  opposite  the 
windows.  Here  we  are  particularly  struck  with 
the  view  of  those  found  in  digging  the  canal  de 
1'Ourcq  ;  we  remark  also  the  teeth  of  the  ele- 
phants found  at  Rome,  and  the  skin  of  the  enor- 
mous animal  discovered  in  Siberia  on  the  banks 
of  the  Lena. 

The  next  hall  is  devoted  to  a  systematic  col- 
lection of  stones,  classed  according  to  the  nature 
of  their  composition  and  contexture ;  next  are  the 
elements  of  a  geographical  collection  of  stones, 
both  rough  and  polished.  At  the  left  on  enter- 
ing are  four  superb  vases,  manufactured  from  the 
lava  of  Vesuvius  ;  a  cup  of  rock-crystal,  a  large 
table  of  green  serpentine,  and  a  mirror  of  talc  — 
such  as  used  by  the  ancient  Peruvians ;  next  are 


190        PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 

cups  of  chalcedony,  agate,  and  jasper  of  different 
colours, — one  of  rock-crystal,  another  coloured 
violet  by  fluate  of  lime,  two  of  greenish  jade, 
a  vase  of  the  same,  and  a  small  one  of  lapis 
lazuli.  In  the  adjoining  cases  are  small  slabs  of 
jasper,  agate,  and  chalcedony;  a  row  of  small 
columns  of  amethyst;  cups  of  amethyst,  chalce- 
dony, and  chrysopasus;  precious  cut  stones,  dia- 
monds, oriental  rubies,  sapphires,  chrysolites,  &c. 
There  is  also  another  collection  of  precious  stones 
polished,  and  rock-crystal  variously  coloured 
according  as  the  light  is  reflected  by  its  facets. 
To  these  are  added  a  collection  of  precious  stones 
of  artificial  construction.  Next  are  seen  a  mis- 
cellany of  divers  substances,  among  which  are  — 
an  elegant  specimen  of  amber,  an  immense  slab 
of  Florence  marble,  savage  tomahawks,  a  cup  of 
red  marble,  and  a  large  spoon  of  green  jade. — 
These  last  articles  are  splendid  beyond  denial, 
but  they  must  yield  in  value  to  the  vestiges  be- 
fore mentioned  of  plants  and  animals  found  in 
regions  far  distant  from  their  native  abode,  and 
thereby  constituting  natural  and  irrefragable  proofs 
of  the  general  deluge  in  which  they  were  re- 
moved. 

Mineralogical  Collection.  Every  thing  is  sci- 
entific in- the  4 arrangement  of  this  collection, — 
where  the  mineral  substances  are  disposed  accord- 


PRACTICAL     NATURALIST.  191 

ing  to  their  constituent  elements,  after  the  sys- 
tem of  the  celebrated  Hauy.  The  numerous  spe- 
cimens here  assembled,  form  by  no  means  the 
least  ornament  of  the  museum  even  to  the  eyes 
of  the  uninstructed, — to  whom  their  scientific  de- 
nominations offer  for  the  most  part  an  inexplica- 
ble enigma.  Some  objects  are  particularly  strik- 
ing ;  such  as  a  superb  vase  of  porphyry  from 
Vosges,  and  large  groups  of  crystals  coloured  by 
quartz.  A  second  hall  contains  inflammable  sub- 
stances and  metals  ;  here  is  a  superb  group  of 
transparent  crystal  —  diamonds  in  every  state  — 
bitumens  liquid  and  solid  —  portions  of  amber 
containing  insects  —  platina — -a  mass  of  native 
gold  from  Peru,  weighing  64  ounces  —  a  magni- 
ficent specimen  of  native  silver  from  Mexico  — 
various  combinations  of  silver  with  sulphur,  anti- 
mony, muriatic  and  carbonic  acid;  here  is  to 
be  remarked  the  great  diversity  of  colours  as- 
sumed by  mercury  in  its  combinations  with  dif- 
ferent metals  ;  here  is  also  a  large  collection  of 
aerolites,  or  meteoric  stones.  Six  cabinets  con- 
tain magnificent  specimens  of  iron.  Other  me- 
tals are  in  great  abundance,  but  the  spectator  is 
now  attracted  to  the  adjoining  hall  by  those  pro- 
ductions of  nature  which  make  a  nearer  approxi- 
mation to  life. 

This  apartment  is  embellished  with  a  collec- 
tion of  rare  fruits  dried  ;  here  are  the  productions 


192         PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 

of  the  baobab,  the  cocoa,  the  bread-fruit,  the  cin- 
namon-tree, the  bamboo,  the  banana,  &c.  One 
of  the  most  remarkable  among  these  collections, 
is  that  of  a  series  of  small  sheets  of  wood  of  every 
species  sawed  horizontally  and  vertically,  exhibit- 
ing an  endless  variety  of  shades  and  veins. — Here 
finishes  the  chain  of  beings  deprived  of  sponta- 
neous movement ;  and  here  begins  that  immense 
series  of  beings  endowed  with  the  faculty  of  loco- 
motion, in  which  man,  gifted  with  reason,  and  not 
subjected  to  a  blind  instinct,  occupies  the  highest 
rank. 

Collection  of  Fishes.  This  comprises  5000 
individuals,  and  2500  different  species,  all  pre- 
served with  an  art  which  exhibits  every  exterior 
form.  In  the  midst  of  these  wronders  appears  the 
statue  of  the  celebrated  BufTon,  whose  genius  has 
painted  them  to  us  with  so  much  truth  ;  the  pe- 
destal bears  this  inscription, — Majestati  nature 
par  ingenium.  The  most  brilliant  part  of  this 
division  is  upon  the  second  floor ;  this  consists 
first  of  the 

Mammalia,  to  the  number  of  15,000,  forming 
5000  species.  The  features  of  these  animals  de- 
signate their  instincts ;  their  various  faculties  are 
denoted  in  their  mien  and  bearing ;  the  intelligent 
spectator  remarks  how  their  forms  are  adapted  to 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST. 

their  climate  and  soil,  and  to  their  peaceable  or 
ferocious  dispositions.  The  mockery  of  the  ape, 
the  simplicity  of  the  lamb,  the  fury  of  the  en- 
raged lion,  the  agility  of  the  deer  and  the  goat, — 
these  form  the  most  striking  contrasts.  The  visiter 
is  struck  with  the  vast  variety  exhibited  by  the  ox 
of  different  countries, — the  vast  disproportion  be- 
tween such  immense  masses  of  animation  as  the 
elephant,  and  such  insignificance  of  size  as  the 
shrewmouse.  The  mind  is  overpowered  and 
humbled,  to  witness  the  action  of  creative  power 
in  the  formation  of  so  many  wonders. 

Birds.  These  offer  a  variety  of  configuration 
and  colour,  no  less  astonishing  than  the  quadru- 
peds. Here  are  6000  individuals,  and  2300  spe- 
cies,—  exhibiting  every  shade  and  variety  of  co- 
lour, attitude,  habit,  and  manner. 
/ 

Invertebrated  Animals.  These  amount  to 
25,000;  their  beauty  and  magnificence  are  truly 
astonishing.  A  class  of  beings  almost  unshaped, 
and  whose  flesh  is  almost  devoid  of  consistence, 
yet  splendid  of  hue,  and  constructing  with  their 
own  peculiar  substances  commodious  and  elegant 
habitations.  The  lepidopterce  also  occupy  the 
same  apartment ;  among  these  are  to  be  remark- 
ed, the  beautiful  shapes  and  dazzling  colours  of 
the  Surinam  butterflies,  which  the  splendour  of 
17 


194         PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 

no  diamond  can  equal.  These  apartments  are 
embellished  with  a  statue  of  Venus  Urania  by 
Dupaty,  and  busts  in  bronze  of  Linn?,  Four- 
croy,  Antoine  Petit,  Winslow,  Tournefort,  and 
Daubenton,  —  placed  amidst  the  objects  which 
formed  the  theme  of  their  meditations,  and  the 
elements  of  their  renown. 

Cabinet  of  Comparative  Anatomy,  situated 
between  the  Rue  de  Seine  and  the  Valtie  Suisse. 
It  was  begun  under  the  direction  of  BufFon  in 
1775,  and  was  perfected  by  Cuvier,  whose  pro- 
found and  observing  genius  is  equally  great  in 
the  conception  and  expression  of  thought.  Ske- 
letons of  every  species  of  animals  are  here  brought 
together ;  in  their  arrangement,  not  only  is  the 
order  of  their  bony  structure  observed,  but  they 
are  compared  in  relation  to  the  shape  and  dispo- 
sition of  their  various  organs,  which  are  preserved 
by  injecting  with  infinite  art  all  the  soft  parts. 
Here  is  not  only  a  comparison  of  the  human  form 
with  animals,  but  comparisons  of  the  different 
human  races,— as  the  European  with  the  Tartar, 
Chinese,  Hottentot,  negro,  native  of  New  Ireland, 
American  savage,  Egyptian  mummy.  Here  are 
to  be  seen  the  Hottentot  Venus,  and  Bebe — the 
famous  dwarf  of  King  Stanislas.  The  six  halls 
which  compose  this  cabinet  contained  in  January 
1823,  11,486  anatomical  preparations. 


PRACTICAL    NATURALIST.  195 

The  library  of  the  Museum  contains  10,000 
volumes,  upon  every  portion  of  Natural  History; 
the  herbals  of  Tournefort  and  Le  Vaillant,  and 
magnificent  designs  upon  vellum  by  Van  Spaen- 
donck  and  other  celebrated  artists. 

Garden  of  Plants.  This  is  in  three  parts  ; 
the  lower  garden,  extending  from  the  Seine  to 
the  galleries,  laid  out  symmetrically  ;  the  upper 
garden,  planted  with  trees  in  an  irregular  manner, 
appropriate  to  the  surface  ;  and  the  Vallee  Suisse, 
with  its  sinuous  passages,  forming  the  spaces  al- 
lotted to  the  habitations  of  the  peaceable  animals 
and  the  enclosures  in  which  they  feed.  Upon 
entering  this  part  of  the  Museum,  you  behold  the 
garden  divided  lengthways  into  three  parts,  by 
long  covered  alleys  running  from  the.  Seine  to 
the  galleries, —  the  wide  intervals  between  them, 
— the  portion  of  the  garden  on  the  left,  by  the 
Rue  de  Buffon, —  that  on  the  right,  between  the 
main  alley  and  the  Vallee  Suisse.  A  coffee-house 
first  meets  your  view  on  the  left,  in  a  retired  shade. 
Next  is  a  square  covered  with  blooming  trees ; 
those  of  the  spring  and  autumn  being  in  separate 
divisions.  Apart  from  these,  and  separated  by 
a  transversal  alley  of  Virginian  poplars,  is  a  nurse- 
ry of  foreign  trees  and  shrubs ;  among  which  are 
distinguished  the  beautiful  clusters  of  the  Ispahan 
peach ,  brought  from  Persia  in  1 780.  Ornamental 


196  PRACTICAL   NATURALIST. 

plants  occupy  the  space  adjoining ;  here  are 
found  vast  varieties  of  the  most  beautiful 
flowers. 

Next  are  the  forest  trees  of  different  climates, 
under  the  shade  of  which  stands  a  coffee-house  ; 
here  is  seen  the  interlacing  foliage  of  trees 
brought  from  the  most  distant  quarters  of  the 
globe  ;  the  spectator  will  remark  the  juniper  of 
the  Levant,  which  has  attained  upon  the  soil  of 
Paris  to  the  height  of  40  feet, — the  American 
acacia,  and  the  sophora  of  Japan. 

The  space  on  the  river  side  between  the  main 
alleys,  is  devoted  to  the  culture  of  medicinal 
plants,  for  the  use  of  the  poor  ;  next  this  is  a 
kitchen-garden.  Beyond  these,  and  surrounded 
by  a  railing,  is  a  nursery  of  exotic  trees, — prin- 
cipally of  the  resinous  species  ;  within  this  en- 
closure is  a  hexagonal  building  for  bee-hives.  In 
the  parterres,  which  extend  to  the  galleries,  are 
contained  such  plants  as  retain  the  stalk  beyond 
the  year;  here  is  also  a  basin,  covered  with  the 
foliage  of  aquatic  plants,  and  surrounded  during 
summer  with  orange  and  pomegranate-trees. 

Farther  to  the  left  is  the  following  arrange- 
ment:— beginning  at  the  Seine,  in  the  first  en- 
closure is  contained  all  manner  of  manure  ;  next, 
the  materials  proper  for  the  support  of  fruit-trees; 
above  these  are  models  of  ditches,  hedges,  natu- 


PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 


197 


ral  enclosures,  artificial  walls  for  espaliers,  grafts 
of  every  description  —  exhibiting  the  most  singu- 
lar phenomena  in  their  configuration  and  in  the 
union  of  different  species  upon  the  same  trunk, 
models  of  plantations,  specimens  of  pruning,  &c, 
&c.  These  objects  form  the  commencement  of 
a  school  of  600  species  or  varieties  of  fruit-trees 
natural  to  the  French  soil,  systematically  arrang- 
ed. The  most  interesting  portion  for  the  study 
of  plants  is  the  botanical  garden,  the  contents  of 
which  are  arranged  after  the  system  of  Jussieu. 
Greenhouses,  both  hot  and  temperate,  contain 
through  the  winter  the  productions  of  the  tropical 
climates.  Here  are  to  be  seen  the  sugar-cane, 
tea-plant,  indigo-tree,  coffee-tree,  manioc,  the 
cactus — on  which  the  cochineal  insect  is  nour- 
ished, &c. 

Proceeding  upward  between  the  two  old  oran- 
geries, you  reach  the  upper  garden ;  on  the  right 
a  small  bank  offers  an  agreeable  promenade,  and 
affords  an  extensive  view  of  the  Fauxbourg  St 
Antoine;  on  the  left  is  a  steep  hill,  covered  with 
firs  and  other  trees  ;  ascending  by  a  plateau  laid 
out  in  a  labyrinth  of  alleys,  the  spectator  beholds 
a  cedar  of  Lebanon,  which  was  brought  from 
England  by  the  celebrated  Bernard  de  Jussieu, 
and  planted  here  in  1734;  on  the  summit  is  a 
kiosk,  from  which  the  eye  of  the  spectator  may 
expatiate  over  a  great  part  of  Paris,  Vincennes, 


198         PRACTICAL  NATURALIST. 

the  course  of  the  Seine  and  Marne,  and  the  plain 
of  Ivri;  at  the  summit  of  this  elegant  kiosk  is 
an  armillary  sphere,  and  a  detonating  sun-dial 
with  the  inscription — horas  non  numero  nisi 
serenas. 

Going  down,  the  view  is  struck  with  a  granite 
column,  surrounded  at  the  base  by  mineral  spe- 
cimens ;  this  is  designed  as  a  monument  to  the 
celebrated  D'Aubenton,  who  devoted  fifty  years 
of  his  peaceful  and  laborious  life  to  the  study  of 
nature  within  these  precincts  Near  this  is  a 
dairy,  the  inscription  to  which  invites  the  passen- 
ger to  a  frugal  repast;  it  is  alike  neat  and  appro- 
priate in  Latin  and  French  :  — 

Hie  post  laborem  quies. 

Hfc  secura  quies,  ae'r,  victusque  salubris; 
Colle  super  viridi  suut  ova  recentia  nobis, 
Castaneae  molles,  pressique  copia  lactis. 

•  '  Asylum  of  repose";  the  silent  pines  spread 
their  shadow  over  the  verdant  hill ;  this  lowly 
roof  furnishes  eggs  and  milk,  a  rustic  meal,  but 
pure  as  the  air  of  these  regions.' — If  the  Swiss 
dairy  of  the  Jardin  des  Plantes  cannot  be  called 
a  chalet,  we  have  at  least  evidence  that  it  is  the 
seat  of  the  muses. 

Adjoining  this  stands  the  building  which  serves 
for  the  lodgings  of  those  belonging  to  the  estab- 


PRACTICAL     NATURALIST.  199 

lishment,  magazines,  &c ;  walking  round  a  pavi- 
lion inhabited  by  the  professors,  the  spectator 
finds  himself  in  the  midst  of  a  parterre,  in  front 
of  the  amphitheatre, —  where  are  placed  in  fine 
weather  a  multitude  of  superb  trees  from  New 
Holland,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  the  Bar- 
bary  coast.  The  entrance  to  this  elegant  amphi- 
theatre, which  is  appropriated  to  the  study  of 
chemistry,  anatomy,  and  medicine,  is  adorned 
with  two  elegant  Sicilian  palm-trees  twenty-five 
feet  in  height  ;  eastward  is  a  magnificent  green- 
house, devoted  to  the  results  of  Captain  JBau din's 
expedition. 

The  garden  was  founded  by  Louis  XIII,  in 
1626;  that  monarch  granted  for  the  purpose  a 
few  acres  of  sterile  ground  at  the  extremity  of 
the  Fauxbourg  St  Victor,  and  an  arid  bank  for- 
merly surrounded  by  a  sewer;  upon  these  were 
placed  a  small  garden,  three  professors,  and  a 
demonstrator.  In  making  these  scanty  prepara- 
tions, he  was  far  from  foreseeing  in  them  the 
foundation  of  a  magnificent  temple  of  the  won- 
ders of  nature,  destined  to  become  one  of  the 
first  ornaments  of  the  capital,  and  an  honour  to 
France. 


GLOSSARY. 


As  it  has  never  been  found  possible  in  works  of 
Natural  History — however  adapted  to  popular  read- 
ing— to  divest  the  language  entirely  of  scientific 
terms,  the  following  collection  of  those  in  general  use 
has  been  thought  necessary.  The  generical  appella- 
tions of  those  tribes  of  the  animal  creation  with  which 
we  have  any  degree  of  familiarity,  have  been  included. 

Accipitres.    The  rapacious  class  of  birds. 
Alauda.     (In  ornithology)  Genus  Lark. 
Alca.     Gen.  Auk. 
Jllcedo.     Gen.  Kingfisher. 

Ambulatory.     A  tribe  of  walking-birds,  with  three  dis- 
tinct toes  before,  and  one  behind. 
Anas.     Gen.  Duck. 
Jlnseres.     The  class  of  swimming-birds. 
Antenna.     The  horn  of  an  insect. 
Apis.     Gen.  Bee. 


502  GLOSSARY. 

Apodal.     An  order  of  fishes   with  bony  gills  and  no 

ventral  fins. 

Jlptenodytes.     Gen.  Penguin. 
•Apterce.     An  order  of  insects,  without  wings. 
Jlranea.     Gen.  Spider. 
Jlrctomys.     Gen.  Marmot. 
Ardea.      Gen.  Heron. 
Aslerias.     Gen.  Starfish. 

Balcena.     Gen.  Whale. 

Belluce.  An  order  of  Mammalia,  having  obtuse  front 
teeth  in  each  jaw,  and  undivided  hoofs.  These  are 
the  Horse,  Hippopotamus,  Tapir,  &c. 

Bivalve.  A  shell  consisting  of  two  parts,  connected 
by  a  hinge. 

Blatta.     Gen.  Cockroach. 

Bos.     Gen.  Ox. 

Brady  pus.     Gen.  Sloth. 

Bruta.  An  order  of  Mammalia,  entirely  destitute  of 
front-teeth.  These  are  the  Sloth,  Ant-Eater,  Rhi- 
noceros, Elephant,  and  Manati. 

Buceros.     Gen.  Hornbill. 

Copra.     Gen.  Goat. 

Caprimulgus.     Gen.  Goatsucker  or  Night- Hawk, 

Canis.     Gen.  Dog. 


GLOSSARY.  203 

Cardium.     Gen.  Cockle. 

Caruncle.     A  fleshy  protuberance. 

Castor.     Gen.  Beaver. 

Catkins.  The  imperfect  flowers  or  blossoms  of  cer- 
tain trees. 

Cere.  (In  birds)  the  membrane  covering  the  root  of 
the  bill. 

Certhia.     Gen.  Creeper. 

Cervus.     Gen.  Deer. 

Cetacea.  An  order  of  Mammalia,  comprising  the 
Whale  and  Dolphin  tribes. 

Charadrius.     Gen.  Plover. 

Chrysalis.  The  first  apparent  change  of  the  maggot 
of  any  species  of  insect. 

Cinereous.     Ash-coloured. 

Clavicle.     The  collar-bone. 

Clupea.     Gen.  Herring. 

Coleopterce.  The  tribe  of  Beetles,  or  such  as  have 
crustaceous  coverings  to  their  wings. 

Columba.     Gen.  Pigeon. 

Cohjmbus.     Gen.  Diver. 

Corvus.     Gen.  Crow. 

Coverts.  The  wing  coverts  are  the  feathers  lying 
about  the  base  of  the  wing. 

Crotalus.    Gen.  Rattlesnake. 


204  GLOSSARY. 

Crustacea.  An  order  of  animals  covered  with  a  cal- 
careous shell,  as  the  Crab  and  Lobster. 

Cryptogamia.  A  class  of  plants  which  have  the  sex- 
ual organs  hidden. 

Culex.     Gen.  Gnat. 

Cuneiform.    Wedge-shaped. 

Dasypus.     Gen.  Armadillo. 

Deciduous.     Those  trees  which  shed  their  leaves  in 

autumn,  in  contradistinction  to  evergreens. 
Delphinus.     Gen.  Dolphin. 
Didelphis.     Gen.  Opossum. 
Digitated.     Furnished  with  fingers  or  toes. 
Diomedea.     Gen.  Albatross. 
Dipterce.     A  class  of  insects  with  two  wings,  as  the 

Fly  and  Gnat. 
Dipus.     Gen.  Jerboa. 
Dorsal.     On  the  back. 

Elytra.     The  crustaceous  coverings  to  the  wings  of 

the  coleopteraB. 
Emberyza.     Gen.  Bunting. 
Entomostracea.     A  tribe  of  animals  inhabiting  the 

water,  and  which  unite  the  characters  of  the  insect 

and  oyster. 
Equus.     Gen.  Horse. 


GLOSSARY.  205 

Erinaceus.     Gen.  Hedgehog. 

Exuviae.     The  slough  or  cast  skin  of  a  reptile. 

Felis.     Gen.  Cat. 

Ferce.  A  class  of  Mammalia,  with  six  front-teeth  in 
each  jaw,  and  one  canine-tooth  on  each  side  in  both 
jaws.  They  are  the  Seal,  Dog,  Cat, Weasel,  Otter, 
Bear,  Kanguroo,  Mole,  Shrew,  and  Urchin. 

Filiform.     Thread-shaped. 

Formica.     Gen.  Ant. 

Fringilla.     Gen.  Finch. 

Gadus.     Gen.  Cod. 

Gallinacea.  A  class  of  birds  akin  to  the  domestic 
fowl;  as  the  Pheasant,  Turkey,  Peacock,  Bustard, 
Pintado,  and  Grous. 

Glires.  A  class  of  Mammalia  with  two  long  front- 
teeth  in  each  jaw,  and  no  canine-teeth.  These  are 
the  Porcupine,  Cavy,  Beaver,  Rat,  Marmot,  Squir- 
rel, Dormouse,  Jerboa,  Hare,  and  Hyrax. 

Grallce.     The  tribe  of  wading-birds. 

.  Gressorial.  A  term  applied  to  the  feet  of  a  tribe  of 
walking-birds  which  have  the  fore-toes  connected, 
but  without  a  membrane. 

Gryllus.     Gen.  Locust. 
18 


206  GLOSSARY. 

Helix.     Gen.  Snail. 

Hemiptcrce.     A  tribe  of  insects  with  wings  half  crus- 

taceous,  half  membranaceous;    as  the   Cockroach 

and  Locust. 

Hirundo.     Gen.  Swallow. 
Histryx.      Gen.  Porcupine. 
Hymenopterce.     A  class  of  insects  with  four  membra- 

naceous  wings;   as  the  Bee  and  Wasp. 


Invertebrated.    Without  a  back-bone. 
Irides.      The  coloured  rings  of  the  eyeball. 


Lacerta.      Gen.  Lizard. 

Lanius.      Gen.  Shrike. 
•  Larus.     Gen.  Gull. 

Larvae.  A  term  applied  to  the  second  state  of  all  in- 
sects, except  those  of  Moths  and  Butterflies. 

Lepidopterce.  An  order  of  insects  with  four  wings 
covered  with  fine  scales,  apparently  like  powder  or 
meal ;  as  the  Butterfly  and  Moth. 

Lepus.      Gen.  Hare. 

Lichen.      Gen.  Moss. 

Limax.     Gen.  Slug. 

Lithophyte.     Stone  tree,  or  coral. 

Lobated.  (In  ornithology)  Having  the  toes  furnished 
with  a  slitted  membrane. 


GLOSSARY.  207 

Lore.     A  bare  streak  on  the  head  of  a  bird,  from  the 

beak  to  the  eye. 
Loxia.     Gen,  Grosbeak. 
Lutea.     Gen.  Otter. 

Macropus.      Gen.  Kanguroo. 

Mammalia.     That  class  of  animals  which  suckle  their 

young. 

Mandible.     The  jaw,  or  bill. 
Meleagris.     Gen.  Turkey. 
Molluscce.      A  class  of  fishes  comprising  nearly  all 

the  testacea. 

Monodon.    Gen.  Narwal. 
Motacilla.     Gen.  Warbler.     This  genus  comprises 

the  Nightingale,  Redbreast,  Wren,  &c. 
Murcena.     Gen.  Eel. 
Mus.     Gen.  Rat. 
Musca.         Gen.  Fly. 
Muscicapa.     Gen.  Flycatcher. 
Myoxus.      Gen.  Dormouse. 
Mytilus.     Gen.  Muscle. 

Neuropterce.  A  class  of  insects  with  four  membrana- 
ceous,  transparent,  naked  wings,  in  which  the  mem- 
branes cross  each  other  so  as  to  appear  like  net- 
work ;  such  as  the  Dragon-Fly. 


208  GLOSSARY. 

Numidia.    Geh.  Pintado  or  Guinea-Hen. 

Ocellated.    Marked  with  spots  resembling  little  eyes. 
Otis.    Gen.  Bustard. 
Ovis.    Gen.  Sheep. 

Papilio.    Gen.  Butterfly. 

Palpce.     The  feelers  of  an  insect. 

Passerine.  An  order  of  birds  comprising  those  which 
sing. 

Pavo.     Gen.  Peacock. 

Pecorn.  An  order  of  Mammalia  without  front-teeth 
in  the  upper-jaw,  with  cloven-hoofs,  and  ruminant. 
They  are  the  Camel,  Musk,  Deer,  Giraffe,  Ante- 
lope, Goat,  Sheep,  and  Ox. 

Pectinated.     Shaped  like  a  comb. 

Pericarp.    The  rind  of  a  fruit. 

Phcenicopteru».     Gen.  Flamingo. 

Phalcena.     Gen.  Moth. 

Phanerogamia.  An  order  of  plants  which  have  the 
sexual  parts  distinct. 

Phasianus.     Gen.  Pheasant. 

Phoca.     Gen.  Seal. 

Physeter.     Gen.  Cachalot,  or  Spermaceti  Whale. 

Picus.    Gen.  Woodpecker. 


GLOSSARY.  209 

Pies  or  Piece.  An  order  of  birds  containing  the  Crow, 
Woodpecker,  Parrot,  Cuckoo,  Kingfisher,  &c. 

Pinnated.  The  feet  of  a  bird  are  said  to  be  pinnated 
when  the  toes  are  separate,  but  furnished  with  lateral 
membranes. 

Plotus.    Gen.  Darter. 

Pollen.     The  fecundating  dust  of  a  flower. 

Primary.  The  primaries,  or  primary  feathers  of  a 
bird,  are  the  outer  feathers  of  the  wing. 

Primates.  The  first  order  of  Mammalia,  according  to 
Linne ;  they  have  four  front-teeth  in  each  jaw,  and 
one  canine-tooth  on  each  side  in  both  jaws.  The 
principal  animals  of  this  order  are  the  Ape,  Lemur, 
and  Bat. 

Procellaria.      Gen.  Petrel. 

Process.     A  fleshy  or  corneous  protuberance. 

Psiitacus.      Gen.  Parrot. 

Psophia.    Gen.  Trumpeter. 

Pulex.      Gen.  Flea. 

Pupa.     The  chrysalis  of  an  insect. 

Rallus.     Gen.  Rail. 
Ramphastus.     Gen.  Toucan. 
Rana.     Gen.  Frog. 

Rapacious.     An  order  of  land-birds,  consisting  of 
Vultures,  Eagles,  Hawks,  and  Owls. 
18* 


210  GLOSSARY. 


Rufous.     Of  a  dark  reddish  colour. 

Scapulars.     The  shoulder-feathers  of  a  bird, 

Scarab&us.      Gen.  Beetle. 

Sciurus.      Gen.  Squirrel. 

Scolopax.      Gen.  Snipe. 

Scolopendra.      Gen.  Centipede. 

Scomber.      Gen.  Mackerel. 

Scoria.     The  dross  of  volcanic  matter. 

Secondaries,  or  secondary  feathers,  are  the  middle 
feathers  of  the  wing. 

Semipalmated.  Partially  webfooted,  or  with  a  mem- 
brane only  at  the  base  of  the  toes. 

Setaceous.      Bristly;   covered  with  coarse  hairs. 

Simia.      Gen.  Ape. 

Sitt'a.     Gen.  Nuthatch. 

Speculum.  A  coloured,  shining  spot,  upon  the  back 
of  the  wing. 

Squalus.     Gen.  Shark. 

Strix.     Gen.  Owl. 

Struthio.     Gen.  Ostrich. 

Sturnus.     Gen.  Stare,  or  Starling. 

Subcaudal.  The  subcaudal  feathers  are  those  which 
lie  under  the  tail. 

Subulate.    Curved  in  the  shape  of  a  shoemaker's  awl. 


GLOSSARY.  211 

Talpa.     Gen.  Mole. 

Tarsus.      (In  a  bird)  The  leg,  or  the  bone  between 

the  thigh  and  the  claw,  in  the  popular  sense. 
Tentacula.     The  feelers  of  an  insect. 
Teriiaries,  or  tertiary  feather s , — the  interior  feathers 

of  the  wing,  or  those  next  the  body. 
Testacea.     A  class  of  animals  covered  with  a  hard 

shell;  as  the  Tortoise,  &c. 
Tesludo.     Gen.  Tortoise. 
Tetrao.     Gen.  Grous. 
Thorax.     The  breast-bone. 
Trichechus.     Gen.  Morse. 
Tringa.     Gen.  Sandpiper. 
Trochilus.     Gen.  Humming-Bird. 
Turdus.     Gen.  Thrush. 

Univalve.     A  shell  complete  in  a  single  piece. 
Ursus.     Gen.  Bear. 

Vent.      (In  birds)  The  under  part  of  the  rump. 
Vespa.     Gen.  Wasp. 
Vespertilio.     Gen.  Bat. 
Viverra.     Geri.  Weasel. 

Waders.     A  class  of  birds  comprising  the  Heron, 
Plover,  Snipe,  and  Sandpiper. 


GLOSSARY. 

Wattles.     The  loose  red  flesh  hanging  about  the  neck 
of  the  Turkey,  and  some  other  birds. 

Xiphias.     Gen.  Swordfish. 

Zoophyte.     A  substance  partaking  of  the  nature  of 
both  animal  and  vegetable. 


EDINBURGH   AND    QUARTERLY  REVIEWS. 


LILLY   £  WAIT,   (late  WELLS  &  LILLY,)    BOSTON, 

CONTINUE  TO  RE-PUBLISH  THE  EDINBURGH  REVIEW 
AND  THE  LONDON  QUARTERLY  REVIEW. 


As  organs  of  sound  criticism,  as  repositories  of  literary  refer- 
ence and  scientific  information,  these  Reviews  continue  unri- 
valled. They  are  sought  after  and  read,  not  only  in  Great  Bri- 
tain, but  in  every  court  and  nation  on  the  European  continent. 
They  are  acknowledged  to  be  the  most  interesting  of  all  Euro- 
pean Periodical  Works;  nothing  that  is  valuable  in  politics,  in 
science,  or  in  general  literature  escapes  their  notice.  No  pe- 
riodical works  have  ever  attempted  the  vast  range  which  they 
take  of  human  affairs;  nor  can  any  legislator,  philosopher,  or 
scholar,  entirely  neglect  them,  without  feeling  the  inconveni- 
ence attending  this  deficiency. 

The  present  extraordinary  agitation  among  the  nations  of 
Europe,  is  calculated  to  render  these  Reviews  at  this  time  un- 
usually interesting,  and  the  strength  of  talent  which  has  ever 
distinguished  them,  appears  to  rise  with  the  occasion,  and  their 
pages  exhibit  a  depth  of  political  sagacity,  and  a  development 
of  intellectual  wealth  and  energy,  that  must  command  the 
admiration  of  every  intelligent  reader. 

Since  their  republication  here,  reviews  on  a  similar  plan 
have  been  commenced  in  this  country,  that  are  conducted  with 
great  ability.  It  should  be  recollected  however,  that  many 
works  of  extraordinary  merit  appear  in  Europe,  that  do  not 
reach  this  country  until  long  after  their  publication,  if  at  all; 
and  those  among  us,  who  are  learned  or  curious,  or  searching 
after  useful  information,  have  no  means  of  knowing  their  char- 
acter, or  may  be  their  existence,  but  through  the  medium  of  a 
foreign  review;  nor  should  the  statesman  or  the  intelligent  citi- 
zen be  content  with  that  meagre  view  of  politics,  which  is 
afforded  by  the  discussion  of  local  interests  alone.  With  no 
desire  therefore,  to  detract  from  the  acknowledged  and  increas- 
ing merit  of  our  own  literature,  permit  us  to  say,  that  so  long 
as  the  most  valuable  .portion  of  literary  and  scientific  inform- 
ation originates  on  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic,  so  long  as  the 


214 

science  of  government  is  considered  worthy  the  attention  of  a 
free  people,  so  long  should  the  Edinburgh  and  Quarterly  fill  a 
place  in  our  libraries. 

As  soon  as  the  numbers  appear  they  are  forwarded  from 
Europe,  and  no  exertion  is  spared  to  reprint  and  forward  them 
to  subscribers  without  delay.  It  should  however  be  remarked, 
that  the  first  appearance  in  London  and  Edinburgh  is  on  an 
average  more  than  three  months  later  than  is  indicated  by  the 
dates  on  the  cover. 

AGENTS. 

New-York.  —  New-York  City,  G.  &  C.  #•  H.  Carvill;  Al- 
bany, Little  Sf  Cummings;  Canandaigua,Bemis^- Ward.  Penn- 
sylvania. —  Philadelphia,  E.  Littell,  —  E.  L.  Carey  8f  A.  Hart; 
Pittsburgh,  Johnson  Sf  Stockton.  Maryland.  —  Baltimore,  E. 
J.  Coale,—  W.  &  J.  Neal.  District  of  Columbia.  —  Wash- 
ington City,  Thompson  #  Homans;  Alexandria,  Wrn.  M.  Mor- 
rison. Virginia.  —  Fredericksburgh,  W.  F.  Gray;  Richmond, 
Richard  D.  Sanxuy;  Norfolk,  C.  Hall;  Lynchburg,  Abm.  R. 
North;  Charlottesville,  C.  P.  M'Kennie.  Ohio. —  Cincinnati, 
N.  if  G.  Guilford,  — C.  D.  Bradford  &  Co.  Tennessee.— 
Nashville,  J.  P.  Ayres.  Alabama.  —  Mobile,  Odiorne  &  Smith. 
North- Carolina. — Newbern,  Salmon  Hall.  South-Caro- 
lina. —  Charleston,  Wm.  H.  Berrett.  Georgia.  —  Savannah, 
W.  T.  Williams.  Louisiana.  —  New-Orleans,  Benjamin  Le- 
vy,—  Mary  Carroll.  Canada. — Montreal,  H.  H.  Cunning- 
ham. Vermont. — Burlington,  Chauncey  Goodrich;  Castle- 
ton,  B.  Burt,  Jr.  Maine.  —  Hallowell,  Glazier,  Masters  fy  Co. ; 
Portland,  Samuel  Colman;  Eastport,  Hiram  S.  Favor.  New- 
Hampshire. —  Portsmouth,  J.  W.  Foster;  Hanover,  Justin 
Hinds;  Concord,  H.  Hill  &  Co.;  Exeter,  F.  Grant;  Keene, 
Geo.Tilden.  Massachusetts.  —  Newbury  port,  Charles  Whip- 
pie;  Salem,  James  R.  Buffum, — Whipple  &  Lawrence;  New- 
Bedford,  William  C.  Taber;  Northampton,  S.  Butler  #  Son; 
Amherst,  J.  S.  &  C.  Adams;  Worcester,  Dorr  &  Howland. 
Rhode-Island. — Providence,  G.  Dana.  Connecticut. — 
Hartford,  H.  &  F.  J.  Huntington;  New-Haven,  H.  Howe;  Nor- 
wich, Thomas  Robinson. 

ICJ11  When  a  personal  arrangement  cannot  be  made  with  the 
publishers  or  an  agent,  any  gentleman  may  receive  the  num- 
bers of  either  Review  by  mail,  on  remitting  by  post  one  year's 
subscription  ($5)  for  the  same;  or  $10  if  both  are  wanted. 


BERTHA'S   VISIT    TO    HER    UNCLE    IN    ENGLAND 


JUST  PUBLISHED  BY  LILLY  &  WAIT, 

Rear  of  Boylston  Market ; 
AND   BY   CARTER,   HENDEE   AND   BABCOCK, 

Corner  of  Washington  and  School  Street,  Boston, 


BERTHA'S   VISIT  TO  HER  UNCLE  IN   ENGLAND. 

In  two  volumes,  at  the  low  price  of  75  cents  a  vol.,  neatly 
bound  in  glazed  cloth,  or  in  leather. 


From  the  Advertisement  to  the  American  edition. 

No  work  has  lately  appeared,  with  the  professed  object  of 
affording  instruction  and  amusement  to  the  young,  that  presents 
a  greater  variety  of  attraction  than  Bertha's  Visit.  Its  success 
in  England  has  been  astonishing,  and  the  form  in  which  it  is 
now  presented  to  the  American  public,  we  trust  is  calculated 
to  insure  as  favourable  a  reception  here. 

The  work  comprises  information  on  almost  every  subject  of 
popular  interest  and  study;  selected  with  excellent  taste  and 
judgment;  conveyed  in  language  perfectly  simple  and  intelligi- 
ble yet  not  divested  of  the  graces  of  style.  History,  Travels, 
Natural  History,  Morals,  Manners,  Religion  —  each  and  all  are 
touched  upon  from  time  to  time,  in  a  way  which  is  well  calcu- 
lated to  ensure  for  them  that  hold  on  the  attention  in  after  life, 
which  it  is  the  best  office  of  works  of  this  class  to  excite.' 

'  We  have  seldom  had  occasion  to  notice  a  work  more  re- 
plete with  amusing  and  diversified  information,  conveyed  in  an 
agreeable  style,  and  adapted  to  juvenile  minds.  We  are  much 
mistaken  if  many  are  not  allured  to  the  acquisition  of  know- 
ledge by  a  perusal  of  these  volumes.  We  can  recommend  the 
work  most  earnestly  to  those  who  wish  to  place  an  interesting 
book  in  the  hands  of  youth. ' 


THE     MODERN     TRAVELLER. 


LILLY  &  WAIT,  late  WELLS  &  LILLY, 
Rear  of  Boylston  Market,  Hoston, 

Are  now  publishing  from  the  London  edition  just  completed, 
The  Modern  Traveller;  or  a  Popular  Description,  Geographi- 
cal, Historical,  and  Topographical,  of  the  various  Countries  of 
the  Globe,  from  the  latest  and  best  authorities,  and  embellished 
with  correct  maps  and  numerous  engravings.  Edited  by  Josiah 
Conder. 

This  much  admired  Work  is  recommended  to  the  particular 
attention  of  all  heads  of  families.  It  is  not  only  interesting  to 
the  general  reader,  but  most  desirable  as  an  effective  means  of 
impressing  geographical  knowledge  upon  the  mind  of  youth. 
It  is  the  purest  fountain  of  Geographical  facts,  happily  blended 
with  the  personal  adventure  of  remarkable  men,  distinguished 
not  only  by  energy  of  character,  but  in  many  instances  by  ex- 
tensive scientific  research  and  acquirements. 

*  Upon  the  interesting  subject  of  which  it  treats,  The  Modern 
Traveller  contains  the  united  excellence  of  every  modern  writer, 
and,  taken  altogether,  is  not  exceeded  by  any  similar  publica- 
tion throughout  Europe;  and  reflects  great  credit  on  the  spirit 
of  the  publisher,  and  the  correct  taste,  deep  reading,  and  pa- 
tient industry  of  the  editor.  'j—  Foreign  Review. 

We  feel  ourselves  justified  in  recommending  this  work  to 
our  readers,  as  being  the  most  judicious  and  interesting  publi 
cation  of  the  kind  that  has  ever  fallen  under  our  notice.'  —  Asi- 
atic Journal. 


eight  volumes  of  this  work  are  completed,  illus- 
trated with  beautiful  maps  and  engravings,  lithographed  by 
Pendleton.  They  comprise  a  description  of  Palestine,  Syria 
and  Asia  Minor,  Brazil  and  Buenos  Ayres,  Mexico  and  Guati- 
mala,  Colombia. 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 


rairy 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


APR  2  9  1957 

APR  15  1957 

r,  i  r.  \  /        -j    4  rr~f 

NUV     1  1957 
OCT  3  1  1967  1  7 

General  Library 
Unive«       of  California 


